Diodorus drew attention to the great length of Celtic swords, especially in comparison with the much shorter Greek or Roman swords. At the same time, judging by their finds in 450 - 250 years. BC, the blades of Celtic swords reached approximately 60 cm, that is, no longer than those that the Etruscans and Romans had at that time. Longer swords appeared among them only at the end of the 3rd century. BC, they used them until the 1st century. BC.

The Celts were big posers and braggarts! Drawing by Angus McBride.

Archaeologists find Celtic swords in large quantities. They are considered in accordance with the accepted periodization system of the La Tène period and typologized accordingly. Thus, the swords of the La Tène I phase date back to the period 450–250 BC. BC. and they have a blade length from 55 to 65 cm. Although there are single samples of 80 cm. All of them are double-edged, have a pronounced edge and belong to the piercing-chopping type. A characteristic feature of this type of sword is the specific shape of the tip of the scabbard, shaped like a stylized letter U. Daggers have blades of different shapes: from wide, almost triangular, to narrow, stiletto-like; their length is 25–30 cm.


Helmet, swords and spearheads belonging to Celtic warriors. Archaeological Museum of Saint-Germain, France.

During the La Têne II phase (c. 250 – 120 BC), sword blades became longer. Now it was specifically for a slashing blow. The tip of the blade acquired a rounded shape, the length began to reach 75 - 80 cm, and the weight was 1 kg including the handle. The tip of the scabbard took on a different shape. From the lake near the village of La Tène in Switzerland, such swords are recovered in almost hundreds, and although some local differences can be noted, it is obvious that they all belong to this period. The scabbard (usually made of iron) was made of two strips. The front one was slightly wider than the back one, and went around its edges. Their mouth was reinforced by a decorative overlay, and the tip strengthened their structure below.

The La Tène III phase (120 - 50 BC) is distinguished by the fact that the length of the blades increased even more and for some swords reached 90 cm. Long swords with a rounded tip and iron scabbards of this type are most often found in Britain.


The tang of a Celtic iron sword.

It seemed that there would be no end to the triumph of the Celts in Europe, but Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul in 55 BC. put an end to it. In Britain, the Celtic subculture existed for another 150 years. The blades of swords of this time (phase Latene IV) are shorter than those that were before - 55 - 75 cm. The scabbard received a forked tip in the shape of a very flat inverted letter V.


Celtic warrior with a shield and spears with tips of a characteristic shape. Illyrian situla from Vache (fragment). Bronze. Around 500 BC e. National Museum. Ljubljana.

The hilts of the swords were made of wood, covered with leather, and therefore they have practically not reached our time. The traditional shape of the handle was in the shape of the letter X, a kind of memory of the “antenna” swords of the Hallstatt era. Sometimes they were made in the shape of a human figure with arms raised up. The later hilts of Latene IV swords often showed Roman influence, as shown by the discovery of a sword in Dorset.

Diodorus writes that the Celts wore swords on their right side, hanging them on an iron or bronze chain. The length of such a chain ranged from 50 to 60 cm, and there was a ring on one side and a hook on the other. Peter Connolly believes that all this was arranged somewhat differently, since the description is confusing. In any case, there was a chain, there was a ring, there was a hook, and we actually had to decide how to do it during full-scale experiments. Well, the belts themselves were made of leather, and several of these belts were again taken from the lake near La Tene.


Celts in battle. Drawing by Angus McBride.

It was customary to talk about the Celts as warriors who fought primarily with swords. But Diodorus also gives descriptions of Celtic spears, and their tips are regularly found in burials. And this is where, according to Connolly, the question arises: if there are so many tips, then... it means that the Celts fought not so much with swords as with spears. We found three spears 2.5 m long and these are clearly not darts! Darts are also found, but many of the tips are very large, which are not suitable for them. Moreover, Diodorus names the sizes of the spear tips: 45 cm and more, and such were actually found, and one even had a length of 65 cm!


Warrior with a shield and an ax. Illyrian situla from Vache (fragment). Bronze. Around 500 BC e. National Museum. Ljubljana.

Their shape was quite unusual: at first they widened at the sleeve, then smoothly tapered towards the tip. Wavy tips are also known, about which Diodorus reports that they caused especially dangerous wounds. It is also known that the Celts also adopted something from the Romans and, in particular, their famous pilum darts. They are found at the excavation sites of many Celtic settlements in southern Europe.

At the same time, Connolly believes that Diodorus greatly exaggerates when he reports that the Celtic shield was as tall as a man. At La Tène the remains of three shields approximately 1.1 m high were found. The three shields discovered by archaeologists were made from oak wood. In the center the thickness reached 1.2 cm, and at the edges it was less. Two retain the traditional vertical rib characteristic of Celtic shields. The umbon above the recess for placing the handle covered the hand from a blow. Moreover, they were of different shapes, ranging from a simple metal rectangular strip nailed onto the shield and its edge where the handle was placed, to umbons resembling butterfly wings or a bow tie with a knot (bulge in the middle). A number of umbos are similar to Roman ones: they have a flat base with holes for rivets and a hemisphere above it.


Horseman with a spear. Illyrian situla from Vache (fragment). Bronze. Around 500 BC e. National Museum. Ljubljana.

Were the shields covered with hide? A tree that was not covered with anything would crack if struck with a sword - this is the opinion of Peter Connolly. However, there are also shields without covering and, in his opinion, they were made specifically for funerals. But shields that are covered with leather and have a leather or metal edge along the entire edge are clearly combat shields. Such a shield could weigh 6-7 kg - wooden base 4 kg, plus leather 2 kg, plus 250 g umbon.


The Battersea Shield, found in the Thames, is one of the most famous examples of ancient Celtic art found in Britain. This is a wooden shield covered with a thin sheet of bronze in the La Tène style. The shield is kept in the British Museum, and a copy of it is in the Museum of London. Shield dimensions: length – 77.7 cm, width 34.1–35.7 cm. It dates back to 350–50 AD. BC e. Well, it was raised from the bottom of the Thames River in London in 1857, during excavations at the Chelsea Bridge. The Battersea Shield is made of several parts held together by rivets hidden under decorative elements. The decoration is in typical Celtic La Tène style and consists of circles and spirals. The shield is decorated with red enamel and is very beautiful in appearance, but its bronze sheet, as archaeologists say, is too thin to provide effective protection in battle, and there is no battle damage on it. Therefore, it is believed that this shield was thrown into the river as a sacrifice.

The obvious similarity between the Roman scutum and the Celtic shield suggests that they have a common origin. But Celtic is more ancient and judging by the finds of the same umbons, it is clear how it was improved. Most of the Celtic shields have an oval shape, and the early Roman scutums have the same shape, and with the same vertical edge. But there are also differences. For example, Roman shields found in Egypt in the Fayum oasis, the dimensions of which almost completely coincide with the dimensions of Celtic shields (height 1.28 m and width 63.5 cm), were made using a completely different technology. If the Celtic ones are made from a single piece of wood, then the Roman ones are made from three layers of birch plates, 6-10 cm wide. They were glued together perpendicular to each other, and on top they were also covered with felt. The handle is horizontal. Polybius, however, reported that they were glued together from two rows of plates, and covered on top with coarse fabric and then leather.


Celt wearing the "Waterloo helmet" and the "Battersea shield". Illustration by Angus McBride.

Peter Connolly reports that he made a replica of such a shield, and its weight was equal to 10 kg. At first this was considered incredible because it was very difficult to use. However, then almost the same shield was found in England, and it became obvious that these were by no means random finds, but that “it happened that way.” And, by the way, it became clear why the same Diodorus believed that Celtic shields were worse than Roman ones. After all, although they were of the same design, it should be taken into account that a shield made of “plywood” will always be stronger than a solid wooden one.


Another original discovery discovered in the Thames at Waterloo Bridge was a helmet known as the "Waterloo helmet", which is now displayed in the British Museum. It was made approximately 150 - 50 years. BC. This helmet was originally a shiny gold color and featured red glass pins. It is unlikely to have been used in combat and was probably some kind of ceremonial headdress. This helmet is the only horned helmet in Europe. It was made from sheet bronze in parts, and then they were all connected together with bronze rivets. The decor on the front of the helmet is repeated on the back.

However, the shields of the Celts, judging by their images, could be rectangular, hexagonal, or round. Diodorus reports that they were decorated with patterns made of bronze, but most likely they were simply painted with paints, and bronze shields with a pattern on the surface most likely had a ceremonial rather than military purpose.


The Battersea Shield is very popular in England. For example, his image graces the cover of this £40 2015 calendar.

The spatha is a classic double-edged sword that was used by Roman cavalry beginning in the first century BC. This is a typical weapon of Celtic foot soldiers, which soon began to be used by barbarian cavalry. It was the long swords of the Celts that served as the basis for the Roman spatha, which was produced unchanged until 600 AD.

Unlike gladiuses of various types, which were mainly piercing weapons, the spatha had excellent cutting qualities, as it was invented by the barbarians, who were Germans and Celts, and preferred to fight in crowds. It was for this reason that the Roman infantry did not use spathas, since they had gladiuses designed for powerful piercing blows. In close formations it is convenient to fight with a short sword.

History of the Spatha Sword

The first swords, similar in type to spatha, appeared in the arsenal of Roman troops around the third century BC. The direct ancestor of this weapon is the Celtic sword, which was used by all tribes with Celtic or Germanic roots. Theories about the origin of this sword often contradict each other:

  • According to one version, the Celtic sword, which became the prototype of the spatha? – this is nothing more than a modernized gladius;
  • According to another version, the Celtic sword itself served first as a prototype of the gladius, and then of the spatha;
  • According to the third version, the gladius and the Celtic sword developed independently of each other, and the Roman long sword appeared due to the fact that auxiliary units consisting of barbarians stubbornly preferred to use their weapons.

During the Great Migration of Peoples, it was the long Roman sword that became the basis for the famous Carolingians. Since iron armor became a real rarity during the early Middle Ages, the need to make a sharper cone disappeared. The swords received wide blades designed specifically for slashing.

The spatha remained popular until the 12th century, after which it evolved into a knight's sword, which was used to pierce armor. The period of the great migration of peoples was marked by a huge number of military skirmishes, so weapons, armor and warships until the 12th century were significantly inferior in quality to their Roman counterparts.

Origin of the term "spata"

The word "spata" is of ancient Greek origin. This term means a wide blade of a sword or simply a wide blade. Since the development of Roman weapons was influenced by Greek culture, the name of the sword is directly related to this. Even today, a modified word “spata” exists in many European languages:

  • In Greek the word is "spathe";
  • In French it is “epee”;
  • In Spanish it is “espada”;
  • In Italian it is “spade”;
  • In Romanian and Albanian - "spata" and "shpata".

In all these languages, this word is translated as “sword” (spata), which suggests that the Roman long blade was used everywhere.

Use of spatha by Roman legionaries

The first spathas in the Roman army were auxiliary troops, which consisted of Germanic and Gallic warriors. The barbarians, accustomed to cutting with long Celtic swords, did not like gladiuses, which had good piercing properties, but were inconvenient for cutting. The length of the spatha of this time was about 75 cm. After some time, noticing that a long sword gives some advantage, the following troops armed themselves with them:

  • Auxiliary Roman cavalry;
  • Roman cavalry officers;
  • Roman heavy cavalry, which consisted of German mercenaries. (In general, closer to the 3rd century AD, serving in the army became unprestigious for the Romans, which ultimately led to the collapse of the empire);
  • Auxiliary Roman infantry.

Some historians believe that the spatha also appeared among legionnaires during the late empire, but it is unlikely that these swords could replace such a time-tested weapon as the gladius. In any case, the spathas that were found among the legionnaires' equipment most likely belonged to officers.

In written sources, bladed weapons such as the spatha appear in Tacitus, who described the early empire. Even then, it was mentioned in passing that the auxiliary infantry warriors of that era were armed with spathas. The blades of swords of that time had a length of 60 cm. Although Tacitus nowhere mentions what nationality the auxiliary troops were, an analysis of the finds of spathas in the territory of ancient Germany and eastern Europe hints that they were Germanic.

In any case, Roman auxiliary troops were formally considered Romans, and in the future they could receive Roman citizenship if they survived to the end of their military service.

An interesting fact that may challenge the Germanic or Celtic origin of the long sword is that the word “spata” itself does not in any way relate to the barbaric languages ​​of Iron Age Europe. There are several ancient Old Germanic or English words such as "sweord", "bill", or other terms, but none of these words even remotely resemble the word "spata".

Spathas from the Roman Iron Age

The Roman Iron Age refers to the period from 1 to 400 AD in northern Europe. Although these territories were not controlled by Rome, they developed under the influence of Roman culture. It is from this era that a huge number of Roman goods found in the marshes of Denmark, Holsteni and Schleswig date back.

About 90 swords, which were issued around 200-400 AD, were found in 1858 in the Nydam Mose cache, which is located in modern Denmark. Initially, these swords were classified as Roman spathas, but their quantity, and the Viking ship found there, suggests that these are locally made weapons. Some historians, who believe the legendary Beowulf was a real character, consider the swords from the Nydam cache to be the weapons of his warriors.

Swords from the Great Migration Period

After the barbarians destroyed Rome, long swords spread throughout Europe. Bladed weapons of that time are characterized by the following parameters:

  • The length of the sword was from 71 to 81 centimeters. It was inconvenient to use such a weapon in the ranks, but for the barbarians this length was optimal;
  • Small sword hilts. Such parameters were explained by the fact that the barbarians practically did not know how to fence. Judging by surviving written sources, they relied more on strength and dexterity;
  • The weight of the sword ranged from 1.6 to 2.4 kg. This weight is ideal for the powerful slashing blows that the barbarians delivered with their modified spatha;
  • The tip was strongly rounded. This made it possible to use lower quality steel for the sword without fear of the tip breaking;
  • The blade width varied from 45 to 60 mm;
  • Point – from 10 cm.

The peculiarity of the structure of these blades is that they were intended for battle with a poorly protected enemy, since armor in those days was extremely rare.

Viking Age blades

The most popular type of spatha is the Viking Age sword, which is also called “Carolingian”. These blades had fullers to reduce weight and make the blades stronger. It was at this time that most swords began to be made by forge welding, placing a steel blade between two strips of soft iron. Cheap weapons were made from iron alone.

Since each clan tried to make its own swords, the shape of these Viking weapons was very diverse. Norwegian researcher Jan Petersen identified 26 modifications of Viking swords. In addition to double-edged blades, single-edged swords were also occasionally found. The length of the weapon increased by 10 cm, and the tip became more pronounced. This is due to the massive appearance of chain mail armor, for which a chopping blow was not always enough to break through.

Norman and Byzantine swords

Norman swords began to appear at the end of the 9th century. This weapon can be called a transitional form between the Roman classical spatha and the knight's combat sword. Norman had the following differences:

  • The pommel became less massive, taking the shape of a hazelnut or even a simpler disk;
  • The total length of the sword became about a meter;
  • The edge became even more pronounced;
  • The balance has shifted closer to the edge.

One of the most famous swords of the Norman era is that of Otto I, which was kept for a long time as a special relic. Norman swords fully emerged as a type between the 10th and 11th centuries.

As for the Byzantine spatha, it was more similar to the classic Roman weapon. There are two theories about the origin of this weapon:

  • According to one of them, the Byzantine spatha appeared as a result of the continuity of the military traditions of Greece and Rome;
  • According to the second, the spatha is a copy of the long sword of the Varangians, who were massively invited to Constantinople as excellent mercenary fighters.

The Byzantine spatha differed from classical Roman weapons in its length and the presence of a more developed guard.

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I am interested in martial arts with weapons and historical fencing. I write about weapons and military equipment because it is interesting and familiar to me. I often learn a lot of new things and want to share these facts with people who are interested in military issues.

All ancient authors in the description of the Celtic ethnos necessarily indicate that Celts were a very warlike people and could always repel enemies. Later, the rulers of the states uniquely recognized the military valor and courage in battle of the Celts by the fact that they began to willingly hire them into their service.

Their location near large sources of ore reaching the surface allowed them, perhaps, to switch to iron weapons and armor earlier than anyone else, which subsequently made it possible to successfully expand the territories.

Armament Celts was a source of pride and was richly decorated. The protective set of a noble warrior consisted of sleeveless chain mail, over which shoulder pads were worn in the form of a cape that covered the shoulders; The cape was fastened with a buckle on the front side.

I would also like to note that the creation of chain mail is attributed to to the Celts.

Sometimes the Celtic chain mail cape acted as an independent type of armor. The helmets were iron and bronze, spheroconic in shape, of the Celtic type, with a small backplate and shaped, richly decorated cheekpieces, which were attached to the helmet with loops. Figures of tribal animals adorned the standards and on the tops of the leaders’ helmets.

The military aristocracy, which could afford a helmet and chain mail, made up a small number of the total number of warriors of the tribe.

Foot soldiers used large flat wooden shields of square, round, rhombic or oval shape. The height of some shields reached more than 1 m, sometimes reaching 170 cm, so that in the grave they often cover the entire body of a warrior; they were however quite thin, about 11 mm in the middle, only 3-4 mm at the edges. Initially, these shields were made of wood, without a complex frame; later they were equipped with a umbon in the center (protecting the hand holding the shield), and the edges were bound with bronze or iron sheet. The shields were colorfully painted with magical ornaments and images of family totems - animals.

From offensive weapons Celts They used a long double-edged sword (75-80 cm), sometimes more, which was worn in a sheath on leather, iron or bronze belts. The weapon also included a spear, which, together with the shaft and tip, sometimes reached a length of more than 2 m; Spearmen were an important part of the Celtic forces, and ancient sources make special mention of them. Cavalry Celts was not numerous, as it consisted of representatives of the nobility. The Celts used comfortable but modest bridles and original saddles.

War chariot on two wheels Celts appears from the end of the 5th century BC. Warriors on these chariots quickly rushed in different directions, hitting enemies with darts, and the sound of wheels and the neighing of horses caused panic in the ranks of the enemy. Having chosen an opportune moment, they jumped off the chariots and fought on foot, while the charioteers and chariots retreated to the rear ranks.

Carts and chariots


At the end of the 2nd, beginning of the 1st millennium BC. e. lungs chariots appeared in southern Europe, the Black Sea region and India. In the middle of the same millennium, chariots appeared in Western Europe and China.

Chariots had for Celts of great importance, especially on the battlefield. They played an equally important role as a religious and ritual vehicle; Thus, goddesses are often depicted racing in a chariot. To demonstrate how prominently chariots played a role for the Celts, one can also cite the fact that the deceased members of the nobility of Celtic society were often laid on the funeral pyre along with chariots, carts or carts. This is especially characteristic of the Hallstatt period.

Typical Celtic chariot- the esseda was harnessed by two horses, i.e. was a light biga. Its body was a rectangular wooden platform, on either side of which there were double railings. The body was mounted on an axle around which wheels with 6-9 spokes rotated. The wheels were covered with an iron band and had a diameter of about 90 cm. The crew of the esseda consisted of a driver sitting in front and a fighter standing behind in the back. The charioteer's main weapon was an elongated wooden shield with a umbo and several throwing spears. Thus, in the inventory of La Tène (450-300 BC) graves, along with the remains of chariots, there is a sword, as well as 3, sometimes 1-2, 4 or even 8 spearheads. Obviously, this number reflects the actual number of copies a charioteer has.

Let us note that in ancient Western Europe in general, and among the Celts in particular, the bow was not a common weapon, but the spear turned out to be such. When the Romans landed in Britain, Celtic chariots either they exerted a moral influence on the legions, “with thunder and crashing,” riding along the Roman formation and “terrifying them with the formidable appearance of war horses,” or they stopped and fired at the Romans with bows, or British leaders landed from them and attacked some Roman detachment . If reinforcements were sent to this detachment, the chariots returned and evacuated the attackers. Thus, according to Caesar, “the stability of the infantry was combined with the mobility of the cavalry.”

Here is another testimony from a Roman author:
"In wars the Gauls used chariots“, drawn by two horses,” wrote Diodorus Siculus, “they were driven by a charioteer, the warrior threw spears and waited for the moment when it would be possible to leave it and engage in close combat. When confronted with cavalry, the chariots showered the enemy with spears, after which the warriors disembarked from them and engaged the cavalry in close combat... It was often possible to see that the warriors used ordinary peasants as charioteers, shield bearers and servants.”

In Ireland, Scandinavian countries and England chariots were used in this way until the 10th century AD.

The Celtic army, Celtic warriors, Celtic berserkers remain in legends, despite the remoteness of the events that took place then. Films and cartoons are made about Celtic strength and courage, trying to explain their constant victories with potions and magic. In fact, it was all about the philosophical attitude towards death instilled by the Druids, and the preparation, the training that the elite Celtic troops were subjected to.

Celtic Fenians

The mentality of the Celtic warrior is somewhat reminiscent of the exaggerated, absurd ideas of the knight from the times of feudal fragmentation. Although the Celtic army knew the formation (sometimes forming a “living fortress” - a closed wall of shields like the Roman “turtle”), much more attention was paid to the actions of noble warriors who fought outside the formation and independently of it.

These warriors formed the Fianna - a “sacred detachment” (although the detachment presupposes joint actions, and the Fenians - members of the Fianna - feasted together, but fought separately). Hiding behind armor, a helmet, and a shield was considered undignified cowardice among Fianna warriors. They considered subtle calculations and the occupation of strategically important positions equally unworthy. At the same time, the Fenian fighting style was distinguished by significant virtuosity; it required long-term training in the use of weapons, complex fighting techniques and very serious psychological preparation. It was this preparation that helped, at the appropriate moment, to activate the body’s internal reserves, without which the techniques were worth little.
However, all this - learning specific exercises with weapons and mastering control over internal energy - developed in the same direction. This is how one of the heroes of Celtic legends went through the “school of combat dexterity”:
"...He mastered the apple technique, the battle thunder technique, the blade technique, the supine movement technique, the spear technique, the rope technique, the cat jump, the salmon jump, the pole throw, the whirlwind-brave-lord-chariot technique, the blow technique with a horned spear, the technique of speed, the technique of the wheel, the technique of strong breathing, the heroic cry, the heroic blow and counter-blow, running along the spear and standing on its tip, the technique of the mowing chariot, the heroic bend of the tip of the spear.”
Based on this and other descriptions, based primarily on the Irish tradition, but not only on it (Ireland is the only country that preserved Celtic culture throughout the Middle Ages), we can draw the following conclusions:
Celtic "techniques" are much broader than the modern understanding of the word; they include not only specific rules for working with a specific type of weapon, but also a universal formulation of movements.
In addition, the breathing pattern is also noted, which allows you to expand the boundaries of control of your own body. It is probably in some way related to the Japanese technique of ki-ai (heroic cry).
Among the techniques of “combat agility”, skills in handling objects that are not weapons are noticeable: a rope, a pole. However, the pole is almost a spear, and the Celts quite often struck with the back of the spear shaft.
Although the main focus is on strength and speed over a significant distance of the fight, “softness” was not ignored either.
The "combat dexterity" of the Celts was noticed not only by themselves, but also by their opponents. The Romans give us a description of how Celtic warriors, fighting on a chariot racing at full speed, not only stood in its back, but also, in search of a better position for throwing darts, ran up onto the drawbar or even onto the yoke! And Julius Caesar himself was surprised and delighted that the Celtic warriors, discovering that light shields did not save them from Roman spears, went on the attack without shields. For the Romans, sword fighting without shields was completely impossible.
The furious fury of such an onslaught, even supported by personal skill, could do nothing with the dense formation of legionnaires. But soon after, Roman emperors began recruiting bodyguards from among the Celts and the Celtic-adopted Germans, gunsmiths began to train under Celtic blacksmiths, and gladiators of Celtic origin fused their chopping-based fencing techniques with the Roman art of stabbing.
The Celtic art of combat long outlived Rome. In war, however, it was applicable only when - and if - the war was conducted according to Celtic rules: otherwise the “combat” bias prevented the use of the military system. In Ireland, this situation persisted almost throughout the Middle Ages. In other countries, the tendency to replace war with martial arts was not so absolute, but did not disappear completely.
It was the absolute nature of the duel that required the Fenians to master a wide variety of weapons: next to each noble warrior there was a squire, and more often - two; without participating in the battle, they gave the combatants javelins, fencing shields for close combat (small, with sharp sides bound in iron and a striking point in the center), sometimes even brought them fresh horses or chariots.
It was not supposed to attack such squires. But they themselves did not engage in combat either with the noble Fenian (perhaps they could not have approached him), or even with each other, except in extreme cases, when their master was wounded and it was necessary to give him the opportunity to retreat.
Together with the warrior of the “sacred detachment,” this combat unit was called a trimarcispa: a fighter and his two assistants.
Trimarcispa made possible the long-distance combat and its mobile-jumping orientation. Without squires, a warrior could not combine sword fighting techniques with the use of long weapons (a spear with a piercing tip) and even throwing weapons.

Celtic Berserkers

The consciously evoked battle frenzy grew among the Celts into the cult of the warrior-beast. This form of combat especially took root among the Germans, who continued to use it even in the Middle Ages. The forces that such warriors unleashed were difficult to resist even in an armored formation that mastered the art of proper combat. Many berserkers were called either wolves or bears, depending on which animal the warrior assumed during battle. Bjorns and Ulfs were equally encountered. During the battle, berserkers did not use armor and defensive weapons, or used them to intimidate the enemy, biting into the shield with their teeth, crushing the armor. They knew how to fight both with and without weapons, and did not consider it shameful to be able to fight with a fist. Stones, clubs and ropes were used as auxiliary weapons. This demonstrated adherence to the precepts of the ancient school of martial arts. And this helped to win. Rarely was the enemy not embarrassed at the sight of a frenzied berserker sputtering with saliva, not noticing fatigue, wounds, or surroundings, but continuing his offensive.

Sword

Thanks to these two leading fighting classes, the sword appeared relatively late in Scandinavia; for a long time, warriors used only axes and a club, preferring not to use the hand in battle. The Celts first began using short swords (around the fourth and fifth centuries BC). At the same time, the sword was used in the style of chopping wood, striking from above, terrifying their enemies with such techniques. Swords truly came into use only at the end of the third century BC and remained until the first century.

Celts made handles from both wood and leather or other unstable materials, so they have not survived to this day. Traditionally, the shape of the handle was X-shaped. The sword was attached to the right side on a leather belt. The Celts hung it either on an iron or bronze chain, depending on wealth and nobility.

Spears

Most ancient sources do not mention the Celts' ability to wield a spear, but dart and spear tips are constantly found in burials. In addition, Diodorus described Celtic spears, which confuses historians and does not make it possible to draw a definitive conclusion about the main weapons of the Celts. Most likely, the Celtic warrior was still a swordsman, but if necessary he could fight with a spear. As mentioned above, ancient legends sometimes provide more truth and scope for imagination than the finds of archaeologists and the research of researchers.

Shields

Not all Celts neglected shields. And those who used them are described so contradictorily that it is difficult to draw a conclusion. For example, Diodorus says that the Celts carried shields the size of a man. In fact, their length was just over one meter, as evidenced by both sculptural images and archaeological finds. The shields were mainly made of oak, their thickness was just over a centimeter. The outside of the shield was covered with skin or felt. As a result, the weight of the shield reached approximately six to seven kilograms. Most shields had an oval shape, although there were also rectangular, hexagonal and round shields. On the outside they were often decorated with images of animals, symbols or geometric patterns.

Helmets

Helmets were made of both bronze and iron. Figures were attached to the top, which made the Celtic warriors seem taller. Sometimes the figures on the helmet took the form of horns, sometimes the appearance of the front part of the body of an animal or bird. There was a visor on the back of the helmet to cover the neck. Some helmets were decorated with horsehair crests or feathers. Others had bumps on the top of their heads. The finds date back to different centuries, hence the differences. Some helmets have decorations on the sides in the form of wings. There were also helmets in the form of a simple round bowler hat with a back plate.

Chain mail

Only berserkers went naked into battle, and then only at the beginning of the Celtic era. In Caesar's time, all Celts fought clothed. But still, armor was not held in high esteem by the Celts. Until the second century BC, only breastplates are found, which equally could have been worn not on a warrior, but on a horse’s harness. However, it was the Celts who are credited with inventing light, conveniently shaped chain mail in the third century BC. Only the nobility used chain mail because of the high cost of the armor. The chain mail consisted of rings connected end to end or of riveted rings (two types of armor were found).

Fist and nails and teeth.
After the stones and tree branches of the dense forest...
Later, another person learned the power of bronze and iron.
Only at first bronze was in use, and later iron.

Titus Lucretius Carus "On the Nature of Things"

Archaeologists can be said to be lucky. Celtic helmets are found in abundance. Their descriptions were also left to us by ancient authors. But here’s what’s interesting: for example, the description of the Celtic helmet left by Diodorus does not correspond to the information provided to us by archaeology. It is clear from them that the helmets of the Celts were bronze and decorated with helmet decoration, which made their owners visually much taller. He also reports that they could have the shape of horns, or the appearance of a bird or animal. And such helmets were found, but they are not widespread.

Helmet. La Tène culture (British Museum, London).

For example, in the area between Ancona and Rimini, the territory where the Senones settled, helmets with a visor in the back and a small point at the top were discovered. Such helmets were given the name Montefortine - after the name of the burial where they were first found. The material for them was armor and, most likely, appeared in Italy at the same time as the Senones.


Gallic helmet. Museum of Saint-Germain, France Saint-Germain.

True, the classic Montefortine helmet, in addition to the backplate and a rather elongated crown, also had cheekpieces, and the early helmets in the Senonese burials do not have them. In 282 BC. This Celtic tribe was driven out by the Romans from their place of residence. So the helmets discovered in Senonian burials must have been made earlier than this time. The material from which they are made is either iron or iron and bronze, and only occasionally are they completely bronze. Some have a complex holder for some unknown helmet decoration, reminiscent of a double fork.


Helmet of the Villanova culture of the 19th century. BC. (Metropolitan Museum, New York)

The people of this culture pioneered ironworking in what is now Italy, and they also cremated their dead and then buried their ashes in double-cone urns.

This helmet already has cheek pads, and, interestingly, they all have the shape of a triangle consisting of three convex disks. It is so similar to the chest plates of the Samnite armor that one might think that either the Samnites looked at these cheekplates when they made their armor, or the Senones copied them from the armor that belonged to the Samnites. In the 3rd century. BC. their shape was simplified, they became completely triangular in shape, and instead of disks, three “bumps” appeared on them. The Italians themselves, however, quickly adopted Montefortine helmets from the Celts and used them very widely. For example, a helmet found in Bologna has an inscription in Etruscan, which makes it possible to date it to a time before the Etruscans left the area. But this same helmet also received universal recognition throughout Western Europe, and not just in Italy.

Such helmets were found in Yugoslavia; you can also see it on the victory frieze in Pergamon, and it clearly belonged to the Galatians. Although the Celts were forced out of Italy by the first quarter of the 2nd century. BC, the Montefortine helmet did not disappear anywhere, but they began to make it from iron. The cheekpieces changed their shape slightly, but, as before, they remained the main recognizable feature of these helmets, which became the main type of helmet of the early Roman army, in which it was used... for four centuries! According to experts, about three to four million of them could have been made, so it is not surprising that their finds are so frequent.

Helmet from Alesia.

There was another type of helmet, similar to the Montefortino one, but without the “bump” on the top of the head. This type of helmet is called a "kulus", after a model found in France. According to Connolly, it was not as successful as the Montefortine one, but was still widely used in the 1st century. BC. Its origins may be as ancient as the Montefortine one - one discovered in a Senonian burial, and there is a specimen from a Hallstatt burial that can be dated back to 400 BC.

Some of the helmets have what appear to be winged decorations on the sides, similar to the wings of Samnite helmets. It is believed that they were widespread in the Balkans in the 3rd – 2nd centuries. BC. On the arch in Orange you can see hemispherical helmets with visors and horns. And again, an amazing example of a horned helmet of clearly ceremonial purpose was found in the River Thames near Waterloo Bridge. That’s what they called it, but it’s clearly not a combat weapon, although many artists have not escaped the temptation to put it on the heads of warriors participating in the battle! Well, helmets with animal figures described by Diodorus are extremely rare. Actually, archaeologists found only one such specimen. Moreover, they found him in Kiumesti, Romania. This is again a typical Monterfontine helmet “with a knob” and a bird figurine on its top. The outstretched wings have loops, and, in theory, can flap during a gallop as its owner rushes across the battlefield.


Celtic warriors. Illustration by Angus McBride.

In a number of Celtic burials in northern Italy, Etruscan helmets belonging to the Negau type were found. This is also a spheroconic helmet, but with a transverse ridge and rim. And the Celts borrowed this type, which is confirmed by the finds of Negau helmets in the Central Alps region, that is, in their places of residence.

In the 1st century BC. Two new helmets, related to each other, immediately came into use. Therefore, it is customary to combine them into one Agent-Port type. The first - the Agent type is similar to a “bowler” with a brim, and the Port “bowler” has a large backplate. The cheekpieces on them are of a new type - the one that the Romans later adopted. It is believed that the port type is the direct prototype of the so-called imperial Gallic helmet of the 1st century. AD Examples of these helmets, made entirely of iron, are found in northern Yugoslavia, the Central Alps, Switzerland, and many areas of central and southwestern France. All these places are the Roman frontier at the beginning of the 1st century. BC, so one should not be surprised at their localization.


Montefortino type helmet (350 – 300 BC). Museum of National Archeology in Perugia. Italy.

Cheekpieces from Alesia in central France, 1st century. BC. They are a rather strange mixture of the classic Italian type, since they are decorated with “knobs” and the “three-disc” old type. There are also finds of conical Greco-Italian helmets with characteristic Celtic decorations. Why is that? Obviously, many weapons were captured as trophies. The helmet is broken, but the cheek pads are intact: “let’s take them and put them on a new helmet!” It is possible that forging accessories were also captured - dies, punches for forging, well, whatever was used there at that time, and again they used this to their advantage. Apparently, the Romans were practical (and all sources talk about this!) and did not consider the use of someone else’s armor to be a betrayal.

However, most Celts fought without armor. Diodorus writes that they smeared their heads with lime and combed their hair at the back of their heads in such a way that they looked like a horse’s mane standing upright. We see this hairstyle on several coins, so there is no doubt that this was the case. Perhaps this is precisely how the crest on helmets appeared, only it was no longer made from one’s own hair, but from horse hair!


A shell made in the shape of a cape from Etruria. Philadelphia University Museum.

From 420 – 250 BC. Only a few bronze discs have reached us, which can be called breast plates, although they could also be decorative decorations of horse harness. Statue from Grezan from the south of France, dating from the 4th–3rd centuries. BC, shows us a warrior with armor in the form of a square chest plate and a back plate with straps. But this statue cannot be called typically Celtic; Perhaps she has nothing to do with them at all!

According to Peter Connolly, chain mail appeared among the Celts around 300 BC. And this despite the fact that they had no passion for armor. It didn’t exist, but somehow they came up with it! Chain mail is called Celtic by Strabo. And indeed the earliest examples of chain mail were discovered in Celtic burials! But since chain mail was an extremely labor-intensive and expensive thing, almost only Celtic aristocrats, and maybe... priests?!


Bronze helmet from Montefortino with cheekpieces. I century BC e., found in the Rhine near Mainz. German National Museum (Nuremberg, Germany).

On various statues of chain mail-clad warriors found in southern France and northern Italy, two types of this armor can be seen: one with wide shoulder pads in the form of a cape; and the second, which resembles a Greek linen shell without the “cape”. Probably the first type was originally Celtic.

In Romania, in a burial of the 3rd century. BC. They also found fragments of chain mail, and maybe not even just one, since one part of the rings consists of rows of alternating stamped and butt-joined rings, and on the second all the rings are riveted. This weaving is considered more reliable. The diameter of the rings is approximately 8 mm. The chainmail pauldrons, shaped like Greek linen armor, were fastened to her chest. That is, the Celts at that time were never able to come up with chain mail with sleeves, short or long, but simply took linen armor and replaced flexible fabric with flexible chain mail!


Cuirass of the Celts. Museum of Saint-Germain, France.

Diodorus, however, very often writes that the same Gauls went into battle naked. At first, this was probably the case, but he himself describes a time later. For example, Polybius describes the Ghazates who crossed the Alps to fight alongside the Celts at the Battle of Telamon in 225. And so they just adhered to the old customs. And all the other Gauls were dressed in trousers and light cloaks. Well, under Caesar the Celts fought fully dressed!


For comparison: the armor of a Greek hoplite from a museum in Argos.


Celtic culture is very popular in the West (and it’s clear why!). This 2016 wall calendar featuring the Celtic antiquities of the British Museum can be purchased from within its walls for £9.99.