2.10.1. Classification The first and main criterion for classifying sources of personal origin is the direction of the communication connections they establish, which, in turn, is considered in two aspects. First, sources of personal origin

How many religions exist in the world? Nobody knows for sure. Most often we are talking about 1000 different religious forms that existed over a significant period of time. Hence the need arises for their ordering, typology, regardless of the time of their existence..

First of all, religions are divided into the living and the dead.

There are other criteria for their classification:

Statistical, cartographic, legal, level of organization, urban principle (urban and rural). Polytheistic or monotheistic.

There is a division of religions according to the composition of the pantheon into polytheistic and monotheistic, i.e. religions of monotheism, which include Judaism, Christianity and Islam.

In the religion classification system, a group of natural (natural) religions can be distinguished. What is characteristic of these ancient religions is that man is not at the center of the universe, but is an element, an integral part of nature. Typical natural religions include the Vedic religions of Ancient India, and Buddhism among world religions. However, as a rule, these religions are polytheistic.

Some experts identify a large group of ancient religions, the basis of which is mythology.

There is a classification of religions on an ethnic basis into national religions and world or universal religions.

National religions(Judaism, Hinduism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, etc.), as their name suggests, are largely associated with a certain people, ethnic group, and nation. The reasons for this kind of national isolation may be historical conditioning, geopolitical conditions, doctrinal reasons, pronounced ethnic uniqueness of culture, etc.

The generally accepted classification of religions is based on a CHRONOLOGICAL sign (criterion)

1. Early. Primitive beliefs and cults(worship of nature) 40 thousand years BC 4-2 thousand BC They are also commonly called pre-religious religions - fet, toth, magic, animism. The first forms of religions differ markedly from modern ones. They have no creed, regular worship or organization. But they all have faith

2. National religions (Hindu, Zoroastrianism, Zhdainism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, Judaism. Etc. The bearers of national religions are representatives of one nation (from 4-2 thousand BC to the present.

3. World religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam. They are characterized by a non-national orientation: cosmopolitanism. The main idea is all equality before God, active preaching, which is why they became global. (formed in the 1st millennium BC, during the era of world empires.)

4. Modern non-traditional cults (second half of the 20th century) or new religious movements:“New Age, Society for Krishna Consciousness, Satan Society, Jehovah's Witnesses, etc.)

Basic Concepts

Religion, religious studies, faith, spiritual life of society, ontology, epistemology, theology, religious idea, religious cult, religious organization, church, sect, denomination, sacralization, secularization, national religions, world religions.

Questions for control

1. What is religion?

2. What is the original element of every religion?

3. What are the main functions of religion?

4. What sciences study religion?

5. How can we classify religions that exist in the modern world?

6. What is the role of religion in human life and society?

Early forms of religion

When considering the problem of the origin of religion, we are faced with very complex questions about when did religion arise and in what forms did it exist in the early stages of its development. For a long time, the answers to these questions seemed obvious. Most people who have studied Judaism and Christianity have been satisfied with the answers contained in the first two chapters of the Bible, where it is stated concept of the creation of the world and man. According to the Bible, after creating man "from the dust of the earth",God “breathed into his nostrils the breath of life” and entered into direct relationship with him. Consequently, religion has a divine nature, arises together with man and, moreover, immediately in the form of monotheism (belief in one God).

There are 2 approaches: religious (theological) and

Secular (religious studies)

The religious approach claims that the appearance of God and the emergence of religions is due to the fact that there is a God who created the world (the world has a beginning and an end), human nature. God influenced man in a special way, and man, under certain conditions, is able to communicate with him.

The ontological proof was formulated by Blessed Augustine in the 1st century)

The religious approach to the origin of religion is always confessional, i.e. stands on the position of any religion.

The secular approach does not give a clear answer to the question of the essence and origin of religion. There are many theories, all: 2 (theological and secular)

Secular theories suggest that it was human nature, transferred to the world around us, that became the basis for ideas about supernatural forces and gods.

Theological proceeds from the fact that there is some kind of supernatural force (God, Spirits) and that the force gave people religion, which influences a person, interacting with him in one way or another.

1. Forms of primitive beliefs. Religious beliefs and cults of primitive people developed gradually. The primary form of religion was the worship of nature. The primitive peoples did not know the concept of “nature”, therefore the object of their worship was the impersonal natural force, designated by the concept of “mana”.

An early form of religious views should be considered totemism - the belief in the existence of a family connection between a group of people (tribe, clan) and a certain species of animals or plants. As scientists suggest, life in tribal tribes served as the basis for the emergence totem(in the language of the North American Indians of the Ojibwe tribe, ototem - his genus) - an animal ancestor, considered the patron of the genus.

Subsequently, within the framework of totemism, a whole system of prohibitions arose, which were called taboo. They represented an important mechanism for regulating social relations. Thus, the gender and age taboo excluded sexual relations between close relatives. Food taboos strictly regulated the nature of the food that was supposed to go to the leader, warriors, women, old people and children. A number of other taboos were intended to guarantee the inviolability of the home or hearth, regulate the rules of burial, and fix the social status, rights and responsibilities of members of the primitive community.

Early forms of religion include magic (literally translated from ancient Greek - witchcraft). It represents the belief that arose among primitive people in the possibility of influencing any natural phenomena through certain symbolic actions (locks, spells, etc.)

Modern experts classify magic according to methods and purposes of influence. According to the methods of influence, magic is divided into contact(by direct contact of the bearer of magical power with the object to which the action is directed), initial(a magical act is aimed at an object that is inaccessible to the subject of magical activity), paracial(indirect influence through cut hair or nails, leftover food, which in one way or another reaches the owner of magical power), imitative(impact on the subject's likeness). According to the purposes of influence, magic is divided into harmful, military, commercial, healing, love, etc.

Usually, magical techniques were performed by specially trained people - sorcerers and shamans, who sincerely believed in their ability to communicate with spirits, convey to them the requests and hopes of their fellow tribesmen, and influence supernatural forces. But the main thing was not that they themselves believed in their extraordinary abilities, but that the team believed them and turned to them for help at the most critical moments. Therefore, sorcerers and shamans enjoyed special honor and respect among primitive people.

Over time, magic turned into one of the most essential components of a developed religion, including a certain system of magical actions - rituals, sacraments, prayers, etc. In everyday life, magic has been preserved to this day in the form of conspiracies, fortune telling, predictions, and belief in the “evil eye” and “damage.”

Among primitive people, the veneration of various objects, which were supposed to bring good luck and ward off all dangers, was of particular importance. This form of religious belief is called "fetishism" (from the Portuguese "fetish" - made).

Speaking about the early forms of religion, one cannot fail to mention animism (from the Latin “anima” - soul) - belief in the existence of souls and spirits. A detailed analysis of animistic beliefs was given by E. Taylor in his work “Primitive Culture”. According to his theory, these beliefs developed in two directions. The first series of animistic ideas arose in the course of ancient man's reflection on such phenomena as sleep, visions, illness, death, as well as from experiences of trance and hallucinations. Unable to correctly explain these complex phenomena, the “primitive philosopher” develops concepts about the soul located in the human body and leaving it from time to time. Subsequently, more complex ideas are formed about the existence of the soul after the death of the body, about the transmigration of souls into new bodies, about the afterlife, etc.

The second series of animistic beliefs arose from the inherent desire of primitive people to personify and spiritualize the surrounding reality. Ancient man considered all objects of the objective world as something similar to himself, endowing them with desires, will, feelings, thoughts, etc. From here arises the belief in separately existing spirits of formidable forces of nature, plants, animals, which, in the course of complex evolution, was transformed into polytheism, and then into monotheism.

Animistic beliefs are an integral and very significant part of all religions of the world. Belief in spirits, evil spirits, an immortal soul - all these are modifications of the animistic ideas of the primitive era. The same can be said of other early forms of religious belief. Some of them were assimilated by the religions that replaced them, others were pushed into the sphere of everyday superstitions and prejudices. Thus, the belief in amulets, talismans, and sacred relics that has survived to this day is nothing more than a relic of primitive fetishism. Echoes of totemism can be found in food prohibitions existing in many religions, in the depiction of supernatural beings in the guise of animals, etc.

To understand the diversity of different world beliefs, it is necessary to touch upon such an issue as the typology of religion. This article will be of interest not only to specialists in this field, but also to people who simply want to understand the ideological views of those who live side by side in a multinational country.

First of all, we need to talk about what typology is. This is the division of a phenomenon into separate categories, according to significant distinctive features.

Many approaches

All attempts ever made to systematize beliefs can be attributed to one of the points presented below. So, here is this simple classification of typologies of religion.

1. Evolutionary approach.
2. Morphological approach.

A number of scientists considered all beliefs from ancient times to the present day as the evolution of religious consciousness. They considered primitive mystical cults to be primitive examples of culture, which were later improved.

This typology of religion describes monotheism and polytheism as the next stage in the development of human consciousness. These scientists associate the appearance of these beliefs with the completion of the formation of certain thinking processes, such as synthesis, analysis, and so on.

This typology of religion is called the evolutionary approach.

Monotheism and polytheism

Monotheism and polytheism, their essence will be described below. Evolutionary theologians say that the second of these phenomena arose earlier. The worship of the forces of nature, which existed in the primitive world, gradually led to the fact that man began to identify each element with the personality of a specific god, its patron.

Each tribe also had its own heavenly protector. Gradually this deity acquired primary significance in relation to others. This is how monotheism arose - the worship of one and only god. Examples of polytheistic religions include the worship of a host of ancient Greek Olympian gods. As a rule, they did not differ much in their behavior and external characteristics from ordinary mortal people.

These gods, just like man, did not possess moral perfection. They had all the vices and sins characteristic of people.

The pinnacle of the development of religious consciousness, according to scientists developing this typology of religion, is monotheism - belief in one God.

Among the philosophers who took an evolutionary view of religion was the prominent thinker Hegel.

Morphological approach

Speaking about the typology of religions and its classification, it is worth mentioning that other, no less eminent scientists were inclined to share all beliefs, based on individual characteristics of the religions themselves. This approach was called morphological, that is, considering the individual components of the teachings.

According to these principles of typology, the diversity of religions and their varieties has been considered repeatedly in the history of science. The following will provide information about such attempts to systematize beliefs.

Distribution area

According to the territorial basis, all beliefs are shared by another typology of religions. Tribal, national, world religions - these are its points.

All the most ancient cults that existed among primitive man before the advent of statehood were widespread, as a rule, within relatively small groups of people. That's why they are called tribal. Another interpretation of this term says that his name indicates a primitive communal system, in which people created such cults.

National religions

They appeared in the era of the formation of the first civilizations, that is, with the beginning of statehood. As a rule, these beliefs had a pronounced national character. That is, they were intended for a specific people, taking into account its traditions, customs, mentality, and so on.

Usually the nations, the carriers of such religions, had an idea of ​​​​their chosenness of God. For example, Judaism contains the doctrine that the Almighty provides His protection primarily to Jews.

World religions

In presenting the question of the typology of religion briefly, it is impossible to ignore beliefs that do not contain any national traits and are intended for people living in different parts of the world, regardless of their moral beliefs, cultural characteristics and their habitat.

Such religions are called world religions. Currently, these include Christianity, Islam and Buddhism. Although many scientists say that the last of the listed religions should be classified as philosophical concepts. This is explained by the fact that in the classical version of Buddhism the existence of God as such is denied.

Therefore, it is often called the most atheistic creed.

As easy as pie

At the moment there is no single, generally accepted typology of religion.

Human belief is such a multifaceted phenomenon that all its nuances do not fit into any of the existing classifications.

The typology of religion can be most briefly presented as follows. Many people divide for themselves all the beliefs existing in the world into true and false. To the first, they, as a rule, fully include only their own religion, and sometimes some related to it, but with a number of reservations. A number of other typologies of religion are based on the principle of “fidelity,” the most famous of which is the Muslim one. According to this theory, there are three types of beliefs.

The first of them, which is usually called the true religion, is considered by Islamic theologians to be only Islam.

The second type includes the so-called patronage or religious books. These include Christianity and Judaism. That is, this group includes those religions that fully or partially recognize the Old Testament. In theology there is another name for this group. So, some scientists call them Abrahamic after the name of Abraham - the man who first accepted the law from God.

All other beliefs are, according to this classification, false.

Thus, it can be argued that many typologies of religion and their classifications are based on the principle of truth.

Relationship to Jesus Christ

Within this “Islamic” typology of religion, its second point, which includes Abrahamic beliefs, can in turn be divided into sub-points, depending on the relationship of a particular religion to the person of Jesus Christ. For example, in Judaism the Son of God is not revered. In this religion, Jesus Christ is considered a false prophet, and Christianity itself is considered a Nazarene heresy.

Islam considers the Savior a great righteous man.

This religion places Jesus Christ in second place in importance after the Prophet Muhammad.

The cardinal difference from Christianity in this matter is that Islam does not recognize the divine nature of the Savior, but considers him only one of the most revered righteous people, whose holiness allowed God to send them his revelation. Christians consider Jesus not just one of the people, but a person in whom the divine essence was united with the human. Adherents of this religion perceive Him as a Savior, without whom none of the people who have ever lived could enter the Kingdom of God because of their fallen, sinful nature.

Thus, according to this typology of religion in relation to Christ, all Abrahamic beliefs can be divided into the following groups:

1. Religions that recognize Jesus Christ and his divine essence.
2. Beliefs that honor the Savior, but reject the doctrine of his unearthly nature.
3. Religions that do not recognize Jesus Christ, considering him a false prophet.

Typology of religion according to Osipov

The most prominent Orthodox theologian, teacher at the Moscow Theological Academy, Alexey Ilyich Osipov, gives his classification of beliefs in his lectures.

His typology of religion is based on man's relationship to God.

According to this system, all existing beliefs can be divided into the following subgroups:

1. Mystical cults.
2. Legal religions.
3. Religions of predestination.
4. Synergies.

According to the professor, the same religion can be simultaneously assigned to several points of this classification. This typology of religions will be briefly discussed below.

Mystical cults

Religions of this type are characterized by an almost complete denial of the existence of God in the sense in which Christianity views it. That is, for people with mystical consciousness there is no deity who has a personality, is capable of creative acts, and also participates in the life of humanity of his own free will. Various rituals, ceremonies, and so on play a huge role in such religions. For adherents of the beliefs of this group, casting spells and performing certain actions in itself has a sacred meaning. Proper worship brings about favorable changes in a person's life. At the same time, the believer himself most often should not make any spiritual efforts, except for monitoring the correct performance of rituals.

The aspirations, ideals and goals of life for adherents of such beliefs are limited to the visible, material world.

Such religions include the shamanic beliefs of the peoples of the north, the cult of Voodoo, the religions of the American Indians, and so on. Also included in this group are various types of paganism, such as belief in the pantheon of Greek and Roman gods, ancient Slavic cults, and so on.

Legal religions

The second point of this typology of religions is beliefs based on the so-called legal perception of reality. That is, believers who consider themselves to be members of such denominations view everything that happens in this world as a punishment or reward that the Lord God sends to his children, that is, people. And accordingly, in order to receive the mercy of the Almighty, it is necessary to perform certain highly moral actions. And if a person violates the laws given to him from above, he is subject to punishment commensurate with the crime that was committed. Therefore, people who have realized their life potential, have a prestigious job, a certain financial status, and so on, deserve the respect of their fellow believers. This is explained by the fact that, according to this worldview, a person to whom material benefits have been sent down from above, without any doubt, is worthy of them, since the Lord shows his mercy only to those who fulfill all the commandments and laws of spiritual life.

Such religions include Judaism, which meets all the criteria of this point of this typology of religions. It is known that in ancient Judea there was a special rank of clergy, which was called Pharisaism. Its representatives were famous for their unquestioning adherence to the commandments. These people were one of the most respected social classes. True, it is worth saying that along with them there were also other religious figures, such as the Sadducees, who denied all existing rules. These directions coexisted peacefully within the framework of one religion - Judaism.

Western Christianity

Elements of the legal type are also present in modern Catholicism, as well as some other areas of so-called Western Christianity.

For example, the basis of Catholic doctrine is the concept of merit before the Lord God. Thus, a person who performs any act that is approved by religious morality is considered a benefactor. His feelings, thoughts, and motives for committing a given act are usually not taken into account. All that matters is the fact that the action was performed. This religious dogma is embodied in such a phenomenon as indulgence. As is known, in medieval Catholic countries, a person who was unsure of the sufficient number of his own noble deeds could buy a paper indicating that he was credited with good deeds that were performed by holy people. According to Catholic teaching, some righteous people have more good deeds than are needed for salvation. Therefore, the merits of saints can serve for the benefit of their less pious fellow believers.

Such excess benefits are usually called beyond merit. Among other things, they include tonsure as a monk. Therefore, some Catholic saints in their prayers brought petitions to God not for the salvation of their own souls; instead, they asked the Almighty for mercy on others, including those bearing the priestly rank.

Predestination

The diversity of religions and the principles of their typologies were reflected in the scientific works of many theologians. One of the most popular classifications is the system of professor of the Moscow Theological Academy Alexei Ilyich Osipov. The third point of this typology is occupied by religions of predestination. As a rule, in these beliefs there is no cult of veneration of saints, iconographic images, and so on. The need to combat human sins is also denied. Thus, one of the religions of this type, Protestantism, speaks of the absence of the need for repentance.

Adherents of this faith explain this circumstance by the fact that, in their opinion, Christ, having come into the world, atoned for all the past, present and future sins of humanity. By this, according to Protestant theologians, the Savior provided everyone who believed in him with the opportunity to enter the Kingdom of Heaven in a future life. Such religions, in addition to the mentioned Protestantism, include Buddhism, since the adherents of this faith themselves and their spiritual mentors call for forgetting about their imperfections and focusing only on the strengths of their character and personality.

Synergy

This word comes from Greek and means “cooperation.” Religions that consider the relationship between man and God as a manifestation of just such a principle constitute the fourth group of this classification. An example of such beliefs is Orthodoxy.

In this direction of Christianity, the goal of human life is to exist according to the covenants that Jesus Christ gave to humanity, that is, in the fight against one’s own sins, against fallen nature.

But, according to this doctrine, such activity cannot bring a positive result without help from above, without communication with God and without performing the sacrament of communion. All this, in turn, is possible only if a person has faith, reverence for the Almighty and repentance for his sins. In support of this thesis, Orthodox preachers usually cite words from the Gospel, where the Lord says that he knocks on the door of human dwellings, and those people who open to him will celebrate and have fun with him. This suggests that the Almighty cannot go against the free will of man; people themselves must come out to meet Him, that is, live according to the commandments of God, since the Savior himself said that he is loved by the one who fulfills the commandments.

Regional features

This chapter will present another classification of beliefs. This typology of religions is based on the geographical features of the existence of faiths.

There are a huge number of points in this system. For example, they distinguish African religions, beliefs of the peoples of the Far North, North American religions, and so on.

The division according to such criteria is interesting, first of all, not from the point of view of the characteristics of the area in which the followers of a particular religion live, its topography and minerals, but from the position of considering sociocultural nuances.

Such information is extremely useful for deciphering the meaning of difficult-to-understand parts of religious literature. So, for example, a person who is not familiar with the nature of the life and way of life of the ancient Jews is unlikely to be able to understand why in the Old Testament it is recommended to sacrifice a one-year-old lamb.

The fact is that ancient Israel was essentially a livestock-raising state. That is, the main source of income and food was raising livestock. Mostly they were sheep. In the first year of life, animals require the most careful treatment and care. Therefore, an individual that has reached one year of age is perceived under these conditions almost as a family member. Sacrificing such a pet is not an easy matter from an emotional point of view.

Classification by source of religious knowledge

The typology of religion by origin suggests that all beliefs can be divided into natural and revealed.

The first should be considered those who deify various forces of nature. Knowledge of their essence stems from everyday observations.

Revelation religion is a creed according to which all the necessary laws of life were revealed to people by God himself. There are currently 3 known religions in the typology: Christianity, Islam and Judaism.

Classification of states

This article cannot ignore another important issue. To fully understand the problem of classifying creeds, you need to know the typology of states in relation to religion.

Atheism

The first point in the typology of states in relation to religion are countries that reject the worship of God.

They carry out an anti-religious policy in a more or less strict form. In such countries, there are often organizations called upon to develop measures to combat various spiritual cults and their ministers. Sometimes such radical measures as repression of clergy are taken.

Examples of such countries can be the USSR, North Korea and some states of the so-called socialist camp.

Secular countries

There are also states that do not prohibit their citizens from having any religious beliefs, participating in rituals, worship services, and so on. The authorities do not interfere with the construction of religious institutions and temples. However, in these countries the church is completely separated from the state and has no political power. In turn, the government does not interfere in the internal affairs of religious organizations, except in cases where the law is violated. Such a country is currently the Russian Federation.

Clerical countries

This is the name given to states where church representatives play a certain political role. As a rule, they have a religion that occupies a privileged position in relation to others. An example is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, where the Anglican Church has some political power.

Theocracy

Such a political regime exists in countries where power is completely concentrated in the hands of the church. The only official head is also a political leader.

The most striking example of such a country is the small state of the Vatican. As you know, in this country the Pope is at the same time the supreme ruler and head of the Catholic Church.

Conclusion

This article examined the problem of the typology of religion and its foundations (various essential features of religious doctrines). This phenomenon, like faith itself, is a very complex and multifaceted concept. And therefore, there is no single generally accepted typology. Some of the options available today have been discussed in separate chapters.

The difficulty, and, according to many scientists, the impossibility of creating a universal typology, lies in the fact that the question of what should be called religion has not yet been resolved. Is, for example, Catholicism a separate faith or is it just one direction of Christianity? It can be no less difficult to classify one or another confession in the typology of religion as monotheism and polytheism.

Religions of the world differ in age, prevalence, influence, complexity and systematization. Some of them served as government officials, others were forever persecuted. Some sanctioned the existence of entire civilizations, others did not go beyond the confines of some lost village. Some have existed for several millennia, while others have disappeared before they could arise. Some acquired a rich theological tradition and were expressed in many great works of different types of art, while others remained among the peoples whose entire strength was spent on survival in harsh natural conditions. Some religions lead to high morality and feats of self-denial, and some push a person to kill. Some call for wars and revolutions, others do not allow a person to go beyond the boundaries of his private life. Some religions call for suicide, some suggest the achievement of immortality.

And yet, all religions are equal. It cannot be said that one religion is certainly better than another.

In the history of religion it is impossible to note progress or regression; this history is a real mosaic, a completely disordered movement; secularization and the onset of religiosity, varying success in the struggle between paganism and theism, the internationalization of religions and their closure within ethnic boundaries, the dying of religions and their revival, triumph and sudden disappearance - all these processes go hand in hand, constantly transforming into each other without any strict sequence and beyond any purposefulness.

Among the classifications of religions with a greater share of objective grounds, the following approaches can be distinguished: 1) Evolutionary; 2) Morphological; 3) By the nature of origin, distribution and influence; 4) By the nature of the relationship; 5) Statistical; 6) Genealogical.

1. Evolutionary. Religion is compared to an object or process that has an origin (or manifestation) in human society, existence and extinction. Indeed, as we will see when studying the structure of religion, at different stages of its development certain of its functions dominate, corresponding to the period of religious upsurge or collapse. Since the 19th century, there has been a classification of religions according to stages of development (by analogy with a person’s maturation). This approach, if applied to the entire world process, has many flaws. An example is the classification carried out by F. Hegel.

Evolutionary classification of F. Hegel: I. Natural religion.

• 1. Direct religion (witchcraft).
• 2. Split of consciousness in oneself. Religions of substance.
• 2.1. Religion of Measure (China).
• 2.2. Religion of fantasy (Brahmanism).
• 2.3. Religion of "being-in-itself" (Buddhism).
• 3. Natural religion in the transition to the religion of freedom. The struggle of subjectivity.
• 3.1. Religion of good or light (Persia).
• 3.2. Religion of Suffering (Syria).
• 3.3. Religion of Mysteries (Egypt).

II. Religion of spiritual individuality.

• 1. Religion of greatness (Judaism).
• 2. Religion of beauty (Greece).
• 3. Religion of expediency or reason (Rome).

III. Absolute religion (Christianity).

Here one can see a superficial figurative definition of this or that religion, and then an unfounded division on an unclear basis, in addition, the classification bears the stamp of pan-Christianity. A similar classification is proposed by the theologian A. Men, putting forward the thesis that all religions are the prehistory of Christianity, a preparation for it.

The evolutionary classification is applicable to individual religions, because one can consider their individual growth and decline on a time scale, but applying this classification to all religions carries the danger of simplifying world development.

2. Morphological. With this approach, religions are divided by their composition, internal content (mythological / dogmatic religions), by ideological content, by the form of doctrine, by the nature of the cult, by ideal, in relation to morality, art, etc. Thus, depending on the object of worship, religions are divided into: monotheism (monotheism), polytheism (polytheism), henotheism ("monotheism", i.e. religions with a hierarchy of gods and a supreme God), atheistic religions (for example, early Buddhism, Satanism, Scientology), suprateism or “supergodliness” (Shankara’s monism, Hellenistic cosmism);

There is no doubt that this classification also has errors. Judaism, traditionally classified as monotheism, is considered by I.A. Kryvelev to be monolatry, and this is true in a sense, because in early Judaism, the figure of Yahweh did not stand out as a transcendental supermundane god.

Atheistic religions are very different from each other. In early Buddhism, the individual is indifferent to the existence of God. Satanism in its various manifestations can either deny the existence of the good God himself, or reject his absolute power, i.e. here we have some form of anti-Godism. Scientology recognizes the possibility for an individual to become a “god” himself, but in general the role of God in governing the world and the individual is not emphasized there.

• 3. Based on the nature of origin, spread and influence, national and world religions, natural religions and revealed religions, folk and personal religions are distinguished. This approach must be understood dialectically, because one and the same religion, taken in different temporal relations, can act both as a national and as a world, folk and personal religion.
• 4. According to the nature of the attitude towards the world and people, religions are divided into peace-tolerant, peace-denying and peace-affirming. Religion may be dominated by a non-utilitarian attitude (soteriological cults), gnostic, mystical (magic) or pragmatic (prosperity religions).
• 5. Statistical. The most positive approach, because here, empirically recorded data is taken as the basis for the division - the number of believers, age and gender composition, geographical distribution.
• 6. Genealogical. This approach takes into account the real historical and semiotic connections between religions. According to this classification, Judaism, Christianity and Islam can be grouped and considered together as Abrahamic religions; Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism as religions of Southeast Asia; religions of the Slavs, Germans, Celts, Greeks and Romans as Indo-European religions, etc. Undoubtedly, this classification is not ideal. Meanwhile, it allows us to trace the origin of religions and develop a common cultural space.

Other classifications are also known, for example, tribal, national, and world religions are also distinguished.

1. Tribal pagan religions developed under the conditions of a primitive communal system. The original religious beliefs were for the most part common to each given related group of peoples, but after the separation of such groups they developed in each unique way. Tribal religions were formed under the influence of the living conditions of the clan and tribe, merged with the developing types of ethnic groups and spiritualized (sacralized) them. An important place in such religions is occupied by the cult of ancestors, based on genetic unity and blood relations. Pagan religions are characterized by the cult of a tribal leader and a system of age-based initiations. Fetishistic, totemistic, magical, animistic beliefs and cult-ritual actions are widespread. At the stage of a developed tribal system, out of many spirits, the image of one spirit could rise - a patron, who acquired the features of a tribal pagan god. Tribal gods expressed the cohesion of people within a particular group and the isolation of groups from each other. The power of these pagan gods did not extend beyond the boundaries of their ethnic region, outside of which other gods ruled.

Currently, tribal religions are common among the peoples of South, East and Southeast Asia, Malaysia, Australia and Oceania, among the Indians of North and South America and are associated with social structures that, due to some of their characteristics, have frozen in their historical development.

• 2. Folk-national religions absorbed some historical and cultural features of tribal ones, but unlike the latter, they formed and developed during the formation of class society. The bearers of folk and national religions are mainly representatives of the corresponding ethnic group, although persons of a different ethnicity can, under certain conditions, become their followers. These religions are characterized by legalism - detailed ritualization of everyday behavior of people in its traditional forms (up to the regulation of food intake, compliance with hygiene rules, household traditions, etc.), specific rituals, a strict system of religious regulations and prohibitions, alienation and separation from other ethno-religious communities. Among the currently existing religions, this type includes Judaism (Talmud), Hinduism (laws of Manu), Confucianism, Sikhism, Shintoism, etc.
• 3. World religions - Buddhism, Christianity, Islam - are connected to one degree or another with tribal and national-national religions, borrowed some of their external ethnocultural elements, but at the same time there are significant differences from them. There are also certain spiritual and historical connections between world religions. World religions appeared in eras of transition from one type of social relations to others. The emerging states covered large territories and included various economic structures, ethnic groups, and cultures. Therefore, the lifestyles of many social structures were reflected in the emerging creeds and religions.

World religions, to one degree or another, are characterized by missionary and preaching activity, which are interethnic and cosmopolitan in nature, addressed to various socio-demographic groups. These religions preach the idea of ​​equality of people (the concept of “neighbor”) according to some characteristics. For example, in Orthodoxy, a neighbor is understood as any person, regardless of his faith, nationality, gender, profession and any other characteristics. In Islam, a neighbor is any other Muslim. In Judaism, neighbor is understood as a Jew and a Jew. In Satanism, the concept of “neighbor” is rejected altogether.

We have seen that there are countless religions.

ST. PETERSBURG

INSTITUTE OF HUMANITIES EDUCATION

Specialty: “Journalism”

RELIGIOUS STUDIES

“He who knows one religion knows none.” (Max Muller)

Types and classifications of religions

Introduction 2

1. Primitive beliefs 3

1.1. Totemism 3

1.2. Animism 4

1.3. Fetishism 5

2. National religions 6

2.1. Ancient national religions 6

2.2. Hinduism 7

2.3. Taoism 10

2.4. Confucianism 11

2.5. Shintoism 12

2.6. Judaism 13

3. World religions 15

3.1. Buddhism 15

3.2. Islam 17

3.3. Christianity 19

3.3.1. Orthodoxy 19

3.3.2. Catholicism 21

3.3.3. Protestantism 22

Conclusion 24

List of used literature and sources 26

Introduction

Religion has existed for many centuries, apparently as long as humanity has existed. Peculiar religions existed in the ancient world among the Egyptians, Greeks, Babylonians, Jews and other peoples. Currently, the so-called world religions have become widespread. World religions are usually called those that, although they originated in one ethnic environment, have nevertheless stepped beyond its boundaries and are currently widespread among the peoples of different states and different languages. There are only three such religions: Christianity, Islam, Buddhism. In addition to them, national religions continue to exist, which developed within certain states and ethnic communities and never went beyond these boundaries. These were the religions of the states of the ancient East and the ancient world - Egyptian, Babylonian, Syrian, Phoenician, Iranian, Greek, Roman and others. At present, only a few national religions have survived, almost all of them in Asian countries: Taoism and Confucianism in China, Shintoism in Japan, Hinduism in India, Zoroastrianism among the descendants of ancient Iranians, Judaism among Jews, and some others.

Religion has accompanied the history of all peoples since the origins of civilization and permeated almost all spheres of human existence, penetrating into the depths of consciousness and even subconsciousness of people. Religion is a special side of the spiritual world, the main feature of which is belief in supernatural forces and beings. Religious faith is invariably associated with the worship of shrines, deities, serving them with the help of special, established sacred actions-rituals. Religious faith and rituals constitute an organic unity, without which there can be no religion. Beliefs specific to each religion constitute their spiritual core. Everything else in them is the implementation of this spiritual, ideal beginning.

Most beliefs are characterized by polytheism and polytheism, but some, especially developed religions, are characterized by monotheism. God in them appears as a supreme being, towering above the world, the creator and ruler of the universe. The idea of ​​God (or deities) is the very center of belief.

There are similarities in the teachings of the world's great religions. This especially applies to monotheistic religions - Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Their ideological basis is united and their forms of existence are very close to each other. These are oral or written tales, traditions, myths and legends about divine forces and creatures, sometimes monstrous and bestial, more often humanoid.

A religion that considers itself the only subversive finds itself in a dead end. The depths of each religion are united in the true, just as all people are united in God, but the unity of religions does not yet mean their equality, the equality of all currents. Every world religion has a certain spiritual core, a hard-to-reach depth. This deep core of each religion is much closer to the deep core of another world religion than to its own periphery. And in every religion the path opens only to great personal effort.

Religion is a natural result of the development of culture, its necessary component at all stages of human development. Various religions have accumulated the achievements of world culture and, to a large extent, are the custodians of the cultural heritage of peoples and states. Therefore, people must recognize the right to exist and the equivalence of a different worldview system, a different type of thinking, different value systems, show tolerance, respect each other’s views and positions and, of course, refuse any types of forceful pressure and other forms of influence.

1. Primitive beliefs

1.1. Totemism

One of the earliest forms of religion is totemism, which is usually defined as the belief in the existence of a family connection between a group of people and a certain type of plant, animal or other natural phenomenon. The source of totemism is the belief in the spiritual unity of man and nature. The main feature of totemism is that the totem is considered the ancestor of a given social group, and each individual of the totem class is a blood relative. Members of a group whose totem was, for example, a kangaroo, considered themselves kangaroos and all kangaroos as members of their group. Totemic ideas determine certain relationships between people. They divide all people into “us” and “strangers”.

Totemism is the belief in some nameless or impersonal force that dwells in each of these creatures, without mixing with any of them. No one has it entirely, but everyone has a relationship with it. It is so independent of the individual subjects in which it is embodied that it precedes their appearance and lives after them and remains unchanged.

A system of specific prohibitions - taboos - closely interacts with totemic beliefs and rituals in primitive society, one might say, is even a certain aspect of them. A taboo is a religious and magical prohibition, the violation of which is punishable by illness or death, sent either by an abstract supernatural force or by specific spirits and gods. The objects of taboo could be things, words, actions, places, animals, people, etc. There are numerous food taboos - from the ban on eating totem animals to the established system of fasting in world and a number of national religions. Prohibitions are characteristic of all early and developed forms of religion. Their violation was associated with the concept of sin and the various forms of repentance, atonement, etc. that follow it.

Appearing in totemism, the magic of life and death is manifested in the rite of rebirth, in initiation reincarnation (transmigration of the soul from one body to another), performed in close connection with the invading, ever-living totem. The idea of ​​reincarnation, the possible reincarnation of a person, in particular a deceased ancestor, into his totem and back led to the strengthening of the cult of dead ancestors and belief in their supernatural capabilities.

1.2. Animism

Another early form of religious ideas and beliefs should be called animism - belief in the existence of spirits, the spiritualization of the forces of nature, animals, plants and inanimate objects, attributing to them intelligence and supernatural power. If totemism is focused on the internal needs of a given clan group, on its differences from others, then animistic ideas have a broader and more universal character, are understandable and accessible to everyone and are perceived quite unambiguously. This is natural, for primitive people deified and spiritualized heaven and earth, the sun and moon, rain and wind, thunder and lightning, mountains and rivers, hills and forests, stones and streams. All of them, in the imagination of primitive people, had a soul, a mind, could feel and act, cause benefit or harm. Consequently, all these natural phenomena must be treated with attention - certain sacrifices must be made, prayer rituals and religious ceremonies performed in their honor.

Animism expressed the fact that primitive man was capable of creating abstract concepts, including the concept of the soul, that in the minds of the people of that time the idea of ​​the existence of a real, earthly world and, along with it, the other world appeared. People sought to “bring into correspondence” these two worlds; the means of such ghosting was magic.

Magic is a set of ideas and rituals based on belief in mysterious forces, with the help of which, through certain symbolic actions, it is possible to influence people, objects, and the course of events in the direction desired by a person. Magic permeated all spheres of human life, and magical ideas and actions arose when a person was not confident in his abilities, when he was faced with problems, the solution of which depended not so much on himself, but on many external factors. It was this dependence that forced a person to rely on the help of mysterious forces and perform symbolic actions.

Magic arose in parallel with totemism and anemism so that with its help it was possible to make imaginary connections with the world of spirits, ancestors, and totems. As magical thinking developed, it began to seem more and more obvious to a person that the desired result depends not so much on purposeful action, but on external circumstances shrouded in magic. As a result, this led to the fact that many specific objects and phenomena began to be perceived as carriers of magical power. Primitive fetishism arose.

1.3. Fetishism

The essence of fetishism is that individual objects are attributed magical powers, the ability to influence the course of events and obtain the desired result. Fetishism manifested itself in the creation of amulets, talismans and idols, which were seen as bearers of that supernatural power that was attributed to the world of spirits, ancestors and totems.

Fetishes, that is, sacred objects, accompany the entire life of primitive man. It could be a stone, an animal tooth, or even the skull of a relative. Spirits live in them, and a person with a fetish enlists their support. Like totemism, belief in fetishes is not some kind of special religion. Sometimes a fetish takes on the meaning of a talisman. He opposes force - force, harmful influence - his own, protective. Belief in the meaning of such amulets passes through all centuries of human history.

Fetishistic ideas form an integral part of any religion. There is hardly a single one of them in which fetishistic beliefs do not occupy more or less prominent places.

Primitive beliefs are the product of the initial stage of the formation of human culture, a reflection of emerging societies, family and industrial relations, a primitive state of mind, sensitive mind and knowledge of ancient man about himself and the world around him. The main objects of worship in these religions were natural objects. Spiritual beings were mostly impersonal in nature. Totemism, animism, fetishism, magic, entering as elements into one religion or another, never and nowhere each separately constituted an entire religion, but they characterize the beliefs and rituals of ancient people. This does not mean that they existed only in primitive society. In this society they just arose and were the dominant forms of the religious side of the life of primitive man. But they have always existed, throughout the history of human culture. We can clearly detect various forms of their manifestations in all subsequent religious systems, including modern religions.

2. National religions

2.1. Ancient national religions

The formation of states meant the formation of national-state religions, belonging to which is determined by belonging to a given state.

One of the first state formations that arose in the Nile River valley in the 2nd millennium BC. e. - Ancient Egypt. According to the beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, each person is a synthesis of three basic substances: his physical body, his spiritual counterpart and his soul. Only the joint existence of these three substances can grant immortality, that is, posthumous existence. Therefore, the Egyptians attached great importance to the posthumous preservation of the body. Hence, the custom of mummifying the dead and burying mummies in tombs acquired great importance.

The Egyptians worshiped numerous deities and believed that sacrifices were the basis of the relationship between people and gods. Offering sacrifices to the gods was the main privilege and responsibility of the pharaohs. In general, the pharaohs played a central role in the religious cult system of Ancient Egypt. During his life, he was given all divine honors, and pyramid tombs were erected. Pharaoh was seen as a living god.

There were no stable centralized states in Messapotamia; they periodically replaced each other: Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, Assyria. Therefore, here there was a process of mutual influence of religious and cult systems: some gods died off and the temples dedicated to them disappeared, they were replaced by others, to whom the functions and merits of already extinct gods were attributed.

According to the mythology of the Sumerians, Babylonians, and Akkadians, life in the Universe occurs according to divine decrees. The pantheon of gods of Messapotamia was directly related to ideas about the structure of the Cosmos, the starting point of which was the zodiac. In the creation epic, the earth is built like the sky. The zodiac is the kingdom in the sky where the gods live and reveal themselves to people in the form of the seven great luminaries. The afterlife did not play a significant role in Messapotamian religion. The Babylonian prayed for earthly blessings, but death filled his entire being with horror and signified a significant deterioration in the conditions of his existence.

The religious system of Messapotamia was not total, that is, it did not monopolize the entire sphere of spiritual life. She left room for views, actions and actions not directly related to religion.

2.2. Hinduism

The basis of all religious beliefs in India - Brahmanism, Jainism and, finally, Hinduism - was the Vedic religious system. Its origin dates back to the 10th – 7th centuries. BC e. The Vedas are a collection of hymns, prayer spells and rituals. Vedanta denies the duality of the world. The only and absolute reality is Brahman. He is beyond qualities and attributes, he is one and indivisible. The material world is nothing more than an illusion. To merge, it is necessary to be morally cleansed, to renounce desires and passions.

In the 1st millennium BC. e. The Brahmanical period begins in Hinduism. The main doctrinal source of this period is the collection of hymns of the Upanishads. Brahmanism develops a certain system of relationships between the gods. The most important of the many gods are the trinity - Trimurti - Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu.

In the philosophy of the Upanishads, there are 6 schools of directions: Samkhya and Vedanta are devoted to philosophy itself; Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Mimamsa set out the foundations of religious ritual and, finally, yoga developed the practice of physical and moral improvement of a person. According to Samkhya, there are two actively intertwined principles - prakriti

(material and energy) and purusha (spiritual principle). The relationship between purusha and prakriti is the root cause of the emergence and existence of the entire phenomenal world. Purusha, like a magnet, influences the matter of prakriti, giving it form and spirit. The interaction of these two principles is the source of the diversity of phenomena and properties of the universe. Thus, Samkhya preaches a kind of philosophical dualism. Brahmanism is characterized by ideas about the fragility, instability and even unreality of the life of an individual and about the absolute stability, integrity, and organization of society, the collective, and the state.

Life, according to the philosophy of Brahmanism, is an endless chain of rebirths, a striving for the Absolute. According to the law of karma, rebirth is inevitable. Karma is the totality of good and bad deeds committed by a person during his life. Depending on which actions predominate, after death a person is born either in a more perfect quality or in the state of a lower being (animal, plant, insect, etc.). The law of karma for a believer is a kind of incentive for self-improvement.

The global synthesis, the result of the development of the religious system in India, is Hinduism itself. The highest image, God in Hinduism is thought of as both one and infinite multitude. It’s as if he plays with himself and, while playing, creates the world. Sacred play (lila) and magic, illusion (maya) are one of the central concepts of Hindu theology. The most important of the many gods of Hinduism, as well as in Brahmanism, are considered Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. They personify the cycle of nature - creation, development and death. Brahma is seen as the root cause of the world and the creator of humanity, from different parts of which different castes emerged. Vishnu appears as the guardian of the world order and has many forms (avatars). And Shiva is the destroyer of worlds.

The basis of Hinduism is the idea that the world is not a random, chaotic combination of things and phenomena, but a universal cosmic order - Rta. He rules over everyone and the gods obey him. This order is primordial and eternal. Hinduism calls this universal and eternal order that preserves and holds the universe as a single whole - dharma. Dharma is a certain impersonal pattern that is found in the things and phenomena themselves. Everything is subject to this pattern: gods, nature, people. Thanks to it, the place of each phenomenon, each particle of the universe as a whole is established.

In the early Vedic period, the teaching of dharma was cosmological in nature. During the Brahmanical period, emphasis was placed on the dharma of each individual being and the class to which he belongs. Dharma is understood as duty - the totality of religious and social duties of each person and each class.

Hinduism cannot be understood without reference to its basic religious doctrines: atman, karma, samsara, moksha and nirvana. In the Hindu religious and philosophical tradition, atman is understood as the basis of mental life, a pure subject (“I”), which under no circumstances can be an object. Atman is an absolute and substantial subject. Hinduism affirms the original unity of atman and the absolute, the world spirit (Brahman). The doctrine of karma is closely related to the idea of ​​samsara, that is, the world of constantly alternating and interdependent sequential deaths and births, their “wheel”. The position of an animal being in samsara in each of his lives is determined by his karma. Samsaric existence is essentially suffering. Moksha (nirvana) – liberation from the cycle of samsara, going beyond the alternation of deaths and births, achieving perfection. In Hinduism, liberation is generally understood as the achievement of unity or even identity of atman and Brahman, the individual and the world spirit.

In Hinduism, the material world is not the creation of a personal god, but rather a kind of unconscious manifestation of divinity. Therefore, the Universe has no beginning and, as some believe, is infinite and unrealistically illusory, since the only reality is Brahma. Hindus believe that the universe “pulsates,” periodically being destroyed and recreated at intervals of about four billion years. The world appears as a huge series of repeating cycles, each of which is an almost exact copy of the previous one. Man is forced to play his role in this vast, illusory and tiresome world. The soul of every person also has no beginning and has gone through a series of reincarnations.

Hinduism views life as suffering, temporarily covered by earthly pleasures. But underneath all this unreality and suffering, the human soul is identical with the supreme Brahma, who is not part of this sorrowful world. The ultimate goal of salvation in Hinduism is to escape the endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth. This can mean eternal peace, the dissolution of the personality in the invisible and impermanent reality of Brahma.

2.3. Taoism

The founder of Taoism is Lao Tzu. One of the fundamental sacred books of Taoism is the Tao Te Ching, but along with it, other texts, the number of which is large, are also canonical. The Tao Da Ching is based on the categories of Tao and De, fundamental to all classical Chinese thought.

Tao is to some extent close to the symbol of the God of Heaven, but it is given a more abstract form. Tao is a kind of law of existence, the cosmos, the universal unity of the world, a kind of divine Absolute. No one created the Great Tao, but everything comes from it, and then, having completed a circuit, returns to it again. Tao is not only the root cause of all things, but also its ultimate goal, the completion of existence. It is impossible to perceive it with feelings and express it in words. Tao is not only the Absolute, but also the “path” along which everything in this world follows, including the great Heaven. Every person, in order to become happy, must take this path, try to cognize the Tao and merge with it. According to the teachings of Taoism, man, the microcosm, just like the universe, the macrocosm, is eternal. Physical death means only that the spirit is separated from man and dissolves into the macrocosm. A person’s task in his life is to ensure that his soul merges with the world order - Tao.

Tao is inextricably linked with Te. It is through De that Tao manifests itself in each individual. But this force cannot be interpreted as effort, but, on the contrary, as the desire to avoid any effort. De implies “non-action” (wu wei) – the denial of purposeful activity that goes against the natural order. This principle, however, does not mean complete inaction; it prescribes a person’s behavior in which he must strive for harmony in society and in nature, abandon subjective goal-setting activity that is incongruous with nature, based solely on selfish interest, and get rid of any isolated subjectivity in the name of inclusion in a single stream of being.

Thus, Taoism teaches a contemplative attitude towards life. Bliss is achieved not by the one who strives to win the favor of the Tao through good deeds, but by the one who, in the process of meditation, immersion in his inner world, strives to listen to himself, and through himself to listen and comprehend the rhythm of the universe. The moral ideal of Taoism is a hermit who, with the help of religious meditation, sexual hygiene, breathing and gymnastic exercises, achieves a high spiritual state that allows him to overcome all passions and desires and immerse himself in communication with the divine Tao. In Taoism, only one psychophysical integrity of a living being was recognized as real; the spirit itself was understood quite naturalistically: as a refined material and energy substance (qi). After the death of the body, this “qi” dissipated in nature. Thus, to merge with nature, live in accordance with its rhythms, achieve the goal of life, which in Taoism was conceptualized as a return to the eternal, a return to one’s roots is, according to Taoism, the main meaning of existence of every person.

2.4. Confucianism

Confucianism was developed by the great Chinese thinker Kong Tzu (Confucius). It is distinguished by rationalism, but at the same time it is deeply religious in form. Confucianism claims that all institutions are sanctified by heaven, which shows a person the path of correct behavior. According to the views of Confucius, the world is an ordered, harmonious, eternal principle, revolving according to the same laws. A person must find his place in this world harmony. And for this he must strive for perfection. A noble husband (jun zi) should be a model, a unique ideal. A noble husband initially has five main qualities: sensuality, duty, knowledge, sense of proportion and trust. The commoner is initially deprived of these qualities. The presentation of Confucian ethics is based on the contrast of these two models of moral attitudes and behavior. A noble husband must set an example of social justice, strive for knowledge, study and comprehend the wisdom of the ancients, honor elders and dead ancestors, be honest, sincere, straightforward, fearless, all-seeing, understanding, attentive in speech, careful in deeds, indifferent to food, wealth , life amenities, material benefits.

Confucianism is based on the idea of ​​harmony between the principles of personal moral self-education and activities aimed at streamlining domination in the name of creating an ideal society corresponding to ancient models. It was assumed that moral self-improvement is a prerequisite for successful activity in the public sphere, which in turn represents an important aspect of the moral development of the individual.

An important principle of Confucianism is also the doctrine of the correction of names (zheng ming), according to which each name (sovereign, father, son, etc.) must correspond to its essence, that is, a person’s social position should determine the nature of his behavior.

One of the important foundations of social order, according to Confucius, was strict obedience to elders, which is the norm for juniors, subordinates, subjects both within the state as a whole and within the family. Confucius reminded that the state is a big family, and the family is a small state.

Confucianism gave the cult of ancestors a deep meaning of a symbol of a special order and turned it into the primary duty of every Chinese. Since childhood, a person has become accustomed to the fact that the personal, emotional, one’s own on the scale of values ​​is incommensurate with the general, accepted, rationally conditioned and obligatory for everyone.

Confucius attached great importance to ritual. Through external forms, rituals and ceremonies, the values ​​of harmonious communication were conveyed at a level accessible to every person, introducing him to virtue. In Confucianism, ritual was a central part of social interaction and at the same time acted as the most important form of religious cult action. However, Confucianism constantly evolved in accordance with new living conditions and, unlike Confucius himself, his followers at the turn of the new era began to propagate the idea that public life should primarily be based not on ritual, but on the norms of law.

While not a religion in the full sense of the word, Confucianism became more than just a religion. Confucianism is the basis of the entire Chinese way of life, the quintessence of Chinese civilization. For more than two thousand years, Confucianism shaped the minds and feelings of the Chinese and influenced their beliefs, psychology, behavior, thinking, perception, their way of life and way of life.

2.5. Shintoism

Shintoism (translated from Japanese as “way of the gods”) is a religion that arose in early feudal Japan from many tribal cults. The sacred book of Shinto is the Kojiki, but there are no church canonical books in Shinto. Each temple has its own myths and ritual instructions, which may be unknown in other temples. The book "Kojiki" contains the basic ideas of nationalism, which were elevated to the rank of state religion: the superiority of the Japanese nation, the divine origin of the imperial dynasty, from the founding of the Japanese state.

Unlike other religions, Shintoism does not have a systemic creed. Researchers identify several of its most characteristic provisions. According to one, everything that exists is the result of the self-development of the world: the world appeared on its own, it is good and perfect. The regulating power of existence comes from the world itself, and not from some supreme deity, as with Christians or Muslims. Another position emphasizes the unity of the universe, nature and man. In the Shinto worldview, there is no division between living and nonliving: for Shinto adherents, everything is living - animals, plants, and things. The Shinto pantheon consists of a large number of gods and spirits. According to Shintoism, man traces his origins to one of the countless spirits. During the formation of class society and the state, the idea of ​​a supreme deity and a creative act was formed, as a result of which, according to the ideas of Shintoists, the sun goddess Amaterasu appeared - the main deity and ancestor of all Japanese emperors, whose divine origin occupies a central place in Shintoism.

All nature is inhabited and spiritualized by the Kami deities, who are able to incarnate into any object, which later became an object of worship, which was called shintai (the body of god). The soul of the deceased under certain circumstances is capable of becoming Kami. Tradition says that the Kami did not give birth to people in general, but only to the Japanese. In this regard, in the minds of the Japanese, from childhood, the idea that they belong to Shinto is strengthened. If a foreigner worships Kami and practices Shinto, then in the eyes of the Japanese this is considered absurd. This position contains the practical goal and meaning of Shintoism - the affirmation of the originality of the ancient history of Japan and the divine origin of the people.

2.6. Judaism

Judaism is one of the few religions of the ancient world that has survived to this day with minor changes. The Torah and Talmud are considered the sacred books of Judaism. The basis of Judaic dogma are the ideas of monotheism, God's chosenness of the Jewish people and messianism.

The idea of ​​monotheism was embodied through the cult of Yahweh (Jehovah), who is immortal, omnipresent, eternal, omnipotent and limitless. According to Old Testament tradition, the name of God was revealed to Moses in an epiphany on Mount Horeb and then on Mount Sinai, the pronunciation of which has been completely prohibited since the 3rd century BC. e. Judaism preaches the adequacy of the human mind to the image of God, which results in belief in the immortality of the human soul. In accordance with the norms of Judaism, the believer maintains contact with God through prayer, God's will is revealed through the Torah.

In Judaism, God is not just some kind of higher power, he is a person who is characterized by emotions, and with whom a person has a special relationship. He wants to share all their feelings with people, but at the same time, God maintains some distance from people. He is above the world, and His ways are often mysterious to man. It is believed that the material world as a whole is good, and a person is obliged to dispose of it in accordance with God's providence. The enormous responsibility of man before God, as well as his weakness and depravity, are especially emphasized. A distinctive feature of a person is his ability to make moral choices. It is precisely the moral choice of a person that Judaism is designed to directly influence. Eternal existence after death depends on the behavior and moral principles of a person. Although Judaism does not have the concept of saving grace that is characteristic of Christianity, it is believed that God always provides even the most wicked person with the opportunity to repent. Having repented, a person can atone for his sin of disobedience to God through good deeds.

Despite the fact that in Judaism God is proclaimed the creator and ruler of all humanity, it emphasizes that the Jewish people are a special people, chosen by God, the Messiah people, called to carry out a special mission in order to establish a kingdom of prosperity, peace, and justice on earth.

Other provisions of Judaism also include the idea that communication with God occurs through prophets, the greatest of whom is Moses. The worldview of a believing Jew is permeated with the expectation of the end of the world and the kingdom of justice. It symbolizes hope for better times and at the same time is one of the most important incentives for a righteous life.

The Jewish religious and cult system contains many provisions regulating nutrition, marriage relations, behavior in society and places of worship. The most significant rites associated with God's chosenness of the Jewish people are initiation rites - circumcision of the foreskin of boys on the eighth day after birth and the Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah ceremonies, marking the coming of age of boys and girls. Religious holidays of Judaism are associated mainly with the facts of the sacred history of the Jews and eschatology. Particular importance is attached to the holiday of Shabbat, consecrated in the commandments of Moses and obligatory for every Jewish believer. On this day it is prescribed to rest from all work. An important holiday is Passover (Easter), the holiday of liberation, commemorating the exodus of the Jews from Egyptian slavery.

3. World religions

3.1. Buddhism

Buddhism is the first world religion to emerge, which began to take shape in India in the middle of the 6th millennium BC. e. The essence of the teachings of Buddhism comes down to a call for every person to take the path of seeking inner freedom, complete liberation from all the shackles that human life carries. In Buddhism, achieving enlightenment meant first of all achieving the state of nirvana. Nirvana is non-existence, when the chain of rebirths stops and death no longer leads to a new birth, but frees us from everything - from all desires, and with them from suffering, from returning to some form of individual existence. You can achieve the state of nirvana only by realizing the so-called four noble truths that underlie Buddhism:

I. Every existence is suffering, that is, not a single form of samsaric existence and not a single state of it can be completely satisfactory: birth is suffering, illness is suffering, separation from the pleasant is suffering.

II. The causes of suffering are desires, attachments, attractions, desire for the pleasant and aversion from the unpleasant.

III. Nevertheless, there is a state of nirvana, a state of special extra-personal existence, achieved with complete calmness of the psyche and getting rid of all affects.

IV. There is a path leading to the achievement of nirvana - the Eightfold Path, which includes the following stages:

1. Righteous Faith: One should believe the Buddha that the world is full of sorrow and suffering and that it is necessary to suppress passions within oneself.

2. Righteous determination: one should firmly determine one's path, limit one's passions and aspirations.

3. Righteous speech: you should watch your words so that they do not lead to evil, speech should be truthful and benevolent.

4. Righteous deeds: One should avoid unvirtuous actions, restrain oneself and do good deeds.

5. Righteous life: one should lead a worthy life without causing harm to living things.

6. Righteous thought: you should monitor the direction of your thoughts, drive away all evil and tune in to good.

7. Righteous thoughts: You should understand that evil comes from your flesh.

8. Righteous contemplation: one should constantly and patiently train, achieve the ability to concentrate, contemplate, and go deeper in search of truth.

There is no concept of one God in Buddhism, although many view Buddhism as a search for God. The Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, did not directly deny the existence of God, but said that the question of his existence is not relevant for the salvation of the soul. In other words, those who seek enlightenment should focus on their own spiritual development rather than relying on outside help. The Buddha himself did not speak of divinity, or even of the divine source of his teachings. He considered himself only an example for his fellow monks and compared his teaching to a raft that should be left behind when reaching the other shore. Like Hinduism, Buddhism views the cycle of reincarnation as a painful process, largely because life is impermanent. Buddha introduced the idea that all living beings, including humans, are not reality: there is no personality, there is only a chain of accidents that we perceive as a person or an object. If the so-called personality is decomposed into its constituent elements and its actions are analyzed over a given period of time, it becomes clear that there is nothing that links them into a single whole. The Buddha is revered as a model of holy living and as the founder of the teachings of Buddhism, and Buddhists are taught that they must overcome ignorance on their own.

Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism denies the existence of atman, arguing that there is no individual simple and substantial soul, and the personality is only an ordered combination of groups of elementary psychophysical states - dharmas. Each dharma exists for the smallest fraction of a second. It is like a momentary flash of fire, but this moment is enough for one dharma to flare up another. This incessant burning is a life filled with suffering. After the death of a person, the dharmas are regrouped, and their new mosaic becomes his rebirth.

Samsara is beginningless and not created by anyone. Its causes are the affects and cumulative karma of living beings from the previous cosmic cycle. Just as each individual living being dies and is reborn in accordance with its karma, so the entire world as a whole arises from emptiness, goes through a cycle of development and existence, and then is destroyed in order to be recreated again in accordance with the collective karma of all living things. creatures Buddhism recognizes the multiplicity of parallel existing and absolute isomorphic worlds.

Buddha does not recognize any comforting illusions, any myths about bodily resurrection and the immortality of the individual soul. He knew that “everything created is perishable.” There will be no outside help. A person must come face to face with reality himself. Ordinary consciousness breaks off into emptiness. But if you are not afraid, if you spiritually go through it, a miracle will happen: absolute emptiness will turn out to be absolute fullness. The human spirit is so deep that even in the face of death it does not lose the main thing - what it loves. Everything is inside a person, nothing is external. A person who loves the world has contained the whole world within himself, and he himself exists in what he loves. The exit from death to immortality is the exit from isolation, from one’s small “I” into the universal expanse, into all-encompassing love. And although the Buddha denies the eternity of the individual soul, he affirms the eternity of the human creative spirit.

Buddhism opposes both excessive passion for the blessings of life and extreme asceticism and self-torture, believing that moderation, self-absorption, contemplation and calm waiting for one's time are the only path leading to nirvana.

It is in Buddhism that one of the first principles characteristic of all world religions is laid down - preaching to all people, regardless of their ethnic and social origin. Another important feature of Buddhism, which also brings it closer to all other world religions, is the shift in emphasis from collective to individual religious life. According to Buddhism, a person could break out of samsara through individual effort, realizing and formulating his own personal “righteous path”, and influencing his destiny.

3.2. Islam

Islam is one of the three greatest religions to emerge from the Middle East. The other two are Judaism and Christianity. All three faiths are closely interrelated because in reality they glorify the same God. Islam arose at the beginning of the 7th century. n. e. on the Arabian Peninsula. The main provisions of the doctrine of Islam are set out in the main holy book - the Koran.

For Muslims, the existence of one God (Allah) is natural and undeniable. This first basic concept of Islam is known as tawhid (monotheism). The second major concept of Islam is known as risala (prophecy). Muslims believe that from the very beginning of human thought, seers and men of revelation have always appeared in the world. The main importance is attached to Muhammad, to whom the contents of the Koran were told in separate revelations by Allah himself, through the mediation of the angel Gabriel. The creed of Islam consists of two statements: “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His Prophet.” The third main concept of Islam is ahirah (life after death). Muslims believe that earthly life does not exhaust the truly unlimited possibilities of human existence. A person’s life begins not at birth, but at the very moment when God wants to create a living soul. And life ends not with death, but at the very second when God deigns to dissolve this soul.

Muslims believe that the world is in no way illusory and is predominantly good, because it is given for the benefit of man. Muslims, as a rule, do not hope to receive a miraculous deliverance from suffering in this life, but believe that they will be rewarded for their good deeds in another life. Man is considered to be God's representative on Earth, responsible for creation under God's authority. Its goal - and the main goal of Islam - is the moral ordering of the world. Man is endowed with taqwa - a kind of divine spark of conscience that helps him to comprehend the truth and act in accordance with it. Thus, conscience is one of the greatest values ​​of Islam, just as love is the greatest value in Christianity. Islam denies the concept of atonement for sin: salvation depends on a person's thoughts and actions. However, tawbah (repentance) can quickly turn a vicious person onto the path of virtue, which will lead to salvation. Islam does not offer man salvation as an act of God's mercy, but encourages him to be guided in his life by what God commands.

Closely related to the belief in the immortality of the soul, which leaves the body on the day of death, is the belief in the existence of two forms of the afterlife: heaven and hell. Heaven is presented as a wonderful place where there is in abundance everything that a person dreams of in this world. Hell is a place of torment and suffering. Those Muslims who strictly follow religious instructions can go to heaven; hell awaits the infidels and those who deviate from the doctrine and cult. The fate of a person after death is determined by Allah himself on the Day of Judgment.

The religious ideas of Muslims do not have a clear dogmatic completeness. Different directions in Islam have different understandings of certain principles laid down in the holy books. Meanwhile, everyone recognizes five religious rules, the pillars of faith: al-Shahada (profession of faith), al-salat (prayer), al-saum (fasting), al-zakat (tax for the benefit of the poor), hajj (pilgrimage). The Shahada instructs Muslims to sacredly believe in one God - Allah, and consider Muhammad as his messenger. Prayer is a mandatory rule for a true believer. According to the Koran, Allah initially ordered Muhammad to pray 50 times a day, but later reduced this number to five. A Muslim can pray individually or collectively in any suitable place, but it is recommended to perform the noon prayer on Friday in a mosque. Women pray separately from men. Fasting (saum), according to legend, was established by Muhammad himself in the month of Ramadan (Ramadan) by order of Allah. Fasting consisted of abstaining during daylight hours from eating, drinking, inhaling tobacco smoke, etc., that is, from everything that distracts from piety.

Islam, unlike Christianity, does not know any church organization. Therefore, law (al-fiqh) plays a major role in preserving the unity of Muslims and the integrity of their faith. Islam differs from other religions in its detailed study of living standards. The set of Muslim legal norms reflected in the holy books is called Sharia. There is no ceremony similar to Christian baptism in Islam; a conscious and firm belief that the witness truly believes in the words he proclaims is sufficient.

There are no priests in Islam: in order to draw your heart closer to God, there is no need for sacrifices and long ceremonies. Every Muslim serves as his own priest. The place of worship, sermons and prayers is the mosque. The prayer in the mosque is led by an imam (mullah) - the leader of the community. It is also a meeting place for the faithful on all important occasions in life, a kind of cultural center.

3.3. Christianity

3.3.1. Orthodoxy

The Orthodox Church is closest to the traditions of early Christianity. For example, it preserves the principle of autocephaly - the independence of national churches. There are 15 of them in total. A distinctive feature of Orthodoxy is that since the time of the first seven Ecumenical Councils, not a single dogma has been added to this teaching, unlike Catholicism, and not a single one of them has been abandoned, as was the case in Protestantism. In the Orthodox Church, ritual prevails over theology. The splendor and luxury of the temple, the festivity of the liturgy, aim at the perception of faith not so much by reason as by feeling. The idea of ​​Orthodox conciliarity presupposes the unity of laity and clergy, adherence to tradition and the primacy of the collective principle.

The Orthodox Church claims that Christianity, unlike all other religions, is a divine revelation, which forms the basis of the Orthodox faith. It is based on a set of dogmas - unchangeable truths, also the result of divine revelation. The main of these dogmas are the following: the dogma of the trinity of God, the dogma of reincarnation and the dogma of atonement. The essence of the dogma of the trinity of God is this: God is not only a personal being, but also a spiritual essence, he appears in three hypostases: God the Father, God the Son, God the Holy Spirit. All three persons constitute one Holy Trinity, indivisible in its essence, equal in divine dignity. God the Father created heaven, earth, the visible and invisible world out of nothing. From the earth God created the first man Adam, and from his rib - the first woman Eve. The purpose of man in the act of creation is for him to know, love and glorify God and through this achieve bliss. God predetermined the salvation of people through his only begotten son, who is the second person of the Trinity, in human incarnation - Jesus Christ. The third person is the Holy Spirit. He, together with the Father and the Son, gave birth to the spiritual life of man, instilled in people the fear of God, bestowed piety and inspiration, the ability of knowledge and wisdom. Orthodox teaching believes that in the afterlife, the souls of people, depending on how a person lived their earthly life, go to heaven or hell.

One of the basic laws of Orthodoxy is the rule of reception, the acceptance by the entire church of any norms. No person, no body of the Church, no matter how broad in composition it may be, can be completely infallible. In matters of faith, only the Church—the “body of Christ”—as a whole is infallible. In Orthodoxy, the traditions of the seven sacraments are strictly observed - baptism, communion, repentance, confirmation, marriage, consecration of oil and priesthood. The sacrament of baptism symbolizes the acceptance of a person into the bosom of the Christian church and through it a person’s original sin is forgiven, and all other sins are forgiven to an adult. It is believed that only on the basis of the sacrament of communion (Eucharist) can a person maintain an inextricable connection with Jesus Christ. An indispensable attribute of the religious life of an Orthodox Christian is the sacrament of repentance (confession), which includes confession and absolution of sins. Following the rite of baptism in Orthodoxy, the sacrament of confirmation is performed, the meaning of which, according to the Orthodox catechism, is “to preserve the spiritual purity received in baptism, in order to grow and strengthen in spiritual life.” The spiritual meaning of the wedding ceremony is that when the wedding is performed, God's grace is poured out on the future spouses, which ensures an inextricable symbolic union based on love, fidelity and mutual assistance until the grave. The sacrament of consecration of anointing (unction) is performed on a sick person, since consecration of anointing has healing power and cleanses the sick person from sins. The Orthodox Church attributes a special meaning to the sacrament of the priesthood. It is performed when a person is ordained to the clergy, that is, to one degree or another of the priesthood. In Orthodoxy, the clergy is divided into black and white. Black is monks, and white is clergy who do not take a vow of celibacy.

In addition to performing the sacraments, the Orthodox cult system includes prayers, veneration of the cross, icons, relics, relics and saints. An important place in the Orthodox cult is occupied by fasts and holidays, the main of which is Easter, established in memory of the resurrection of the son of God Jesus Christ crucified on the cross.

3.3.2. Catholicism

The basis of the faith of Catholicism is the books of the New and Old Testaments (Holy Scripture), the decisions of the 21st Ecumenical Church Council and the judgments of the popes on ecclesiastical and secular affairs (the Holy Scripture). The Catholic Church, unlike the Orthodox Church, has a single head - the Pope. The head of the church is considered the vicar of Christ on earth and the successor of the Apostle Peter. The Pope performs a triple function: Bishop of Rome, Shepherd of the Universal Church and Head of the Vatican State. In the Catholic Church, all priests belong to one of the monastic orders and they are required to observe celibacy - a vow of celibacy.

The dogma of Catholicism, which is in many ways close to Orthodoxy, has some peculiarities. In Catholicism, a unique understanding of the Trinity has been established, enshrined in the form of the filioque dogma: the procession of the Holy Spirit is recognized not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son. The Catholic Church formulated the dogma of purgatory - a place intermediate between heaven and hell, where the souls of sinners reside who have not received forgiveness in earthly life, but are not burdened with mortal sins. In general, Catholicism is quite lenient towards people, since it proceeds from the belief that sinfulness is an integral part of human nature, only the Pope is sinless. Atonement for sins in Catholicism is possible through social activities. A huge role in the salvation of sinful people is played by the so-called treasury of good deeds, performed in abundance by Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints, which only the Pope can dispose of. So in the Middle Ages, the practice of indulgences appeared in Catholicism - the ransom of sins for money. Catholicism is characterized by sublime veneration of the Mother of God - the Mother of Jesus Christ, which was expressed in the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary, as well as in the dogma of the bodily ascension of the Mother of God.

Catholicism, like Orthodoxy, recognizes the seven sacraments of Christianity. However, baptism here is carried out by pouring, and confirmation is separated from baptism and is carried out when the child reaches 7-8 years of age. The main holiday in Catholicism is Christmas.

Despite the carefully developed and pompous ritual, in Roman Christianity theology still dominates over ritual. Therefore, Catholicism is more individualistic than Orthodoxy. The Catholic Mass is more magnificent, festive in nature, it uses all types of art to influence the consciousness and feelings of believers.

3.3.3. Protestantism

Despite the presence of many churches and denominations in Protestantism, it is possible to identify common features of doctrine, cult and organization for all. The Bible is recognized by most Protestants as the only source of doctrine. Protestantism focuses a person on personal communication with God. Hence the right of every person to read and discuss the Bible. Paying great attention to the human incarnation of Jesus Christ, Protestants for the most part recognize Christmas as their main holiday. The main services are reading the Bible, preaching, individual and collective prayers, and singing religious hymns. As a rule, the cult of the Mother of God, saints, icons and relics is rejected. The main organizational structure of Protestantism is the community, and the hierarchy of clergy is not developed. In Protestantism, two main directions can be distinguished: liberal, which recognizes criticism of the Bible, and fundamentalist, which insists on a literal understanding of Biblical texts. The liberal trend, the oldest in Protestantism, originated in the form of the teachings of Martin Luther at the beginning of the 16th century. Its supporters - Lutherans - recognize the dogmas defined at the First and Second Ecumenical Councils as the Creed. The main way to atone for sins is repentance. Two Christian sacraments are recognized: baptism and communion. Lutheranism preserves the liturgy, the church altar, and the vestments of the clergy. There is also ordination (ordination), and there is a bishop. Lutherans accept the crucifix as the main symbol; icons are rejected. The founder of the fundamentalist movement in Protestantism is John Calvin. Calvin recognized the Bible as the only sacred book. Denying the clergy, he affirmed the principle of worldly vocation and worldly asceticism (every believer is a priest). Calvinism presupposes the salvation of the soul not so much through repentance as through active worldly activity, entrepreneurship. Calvinists deny the external attributes of cult - the cross, icons, candles, etc. The sacraments of baptism and communion are carried out symbolically among them. The main forms of worship are sermons, prayers, and the singing of psalms. Calvinism denies any form of church organization other than community.

Protestantism teaches that it is not so much rituals that are important, but the conscientious performance by everyone of their duties, that is, in conscientious work a person embodies the Christian commandments. Protestantism affirms the equality of all believers before God and preaches salvation by faith already in earthly life, denies monasticism, as well as the celibacy of the clergy. Protestantism is characterized by the desire to separate the spheres of influence of the spiritual power of the church and the secular power of the state: to God - what is God's, and to Caesar - what is Caesar's.

The main tenet of Protestantism is the dogma of justification by faith alone in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. Other means of salvation are considered unimportant. According to this dogma, as a result of the Fall, original sin, man lost the ability to do good on his own, therefore salvation can only come to him as a result of divine intervention; salvation is a gift of divine grace.

Christianity, like Buddhism and then Islam, created the ideal of universal human behavior and existence, created a holistic worldview and attitude. At the heart of Christianity is the teaching about the God-man Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who came to people with good deeds, commanded them the laws of righteous life and accepted great suffering and martyrdom on the cross to atone for the sins of people.

Christians believe that the world was created by one eternal God, and created without evil. The Resurrection of Christ marks for Christians victory over death and the newfound possibility of eternal life with God. Christianity views history as a unidirectional, unique, “one-time” process directed by God: from the beginning (creation) to the end (the coming of the Messiah, the Last Judgment). The main idea of ​​Christianity is the idea of ​​sin and human salvation. People are sinners before God, and this is what makes them equal: Greeks and Jews, Romans and barbarians, slaves and free, rich and poor - all sinners, all “servants of God.”

The Christian religion argued that suffering in earthly life would bring a person salvation and heavenly bliss in the afterlife, and saw resistance to evil as the path to moral improvement. She promised that the righteous would be rewarded and that the lower classes would have a future. Christianity acquired the character of a universal, universal religion.

Conclusion

Despite their external dissimilarity, all religions of the world have common roots and equally participated in the formation of the culture of their people. Creeds and sacred books contain the inexorable universal values ​​of culture and morality. Without religion, without taking into account its influence, it is impossible to imagine the history of any people, any civilization. The original philosophy of each people - more precisely, its original worldview, is closely related to its religious ideas and beliefs. Concepts about the origin of things, about the first causes, about the final fate of the world and man, about the spirit and soul have a religious origin and are associated with an entire mythology.

However, in addition to the similarities in the teachings of the world's great religions, there are also fundamental differences. Different religions differ from each other not only in their ideas about gods, but also in their assessment of reality. So, for example, the Old Testament faith sees in the world the creation of a good Creator, and in humanity - the image and likeness of God. Christianity, a religion of love, recognizes in Christ the God-man, who came not to destroy, but to save the world and man, and thereby showed the world the love of the Father. Indian religious teachings, on the contrary, recognize the world as a ghostly dream.

The earthly churches dispute the right to absolute possession of the truth just as the two mothers in King Solomon's parable disputed the child. Solomon offered to cut the child in half, and recognized the woman who refused to do this as the real mother. The mother of truth becomes the soul that would rather renounce its right to own the truth than violate the integrity of the truth, encroach on its Infinity, inaccessible to the human mind. The person closest to the absolute truth will be the one who was able to get rid of the feeling of the exclusivity of his religion and suppress the pride of his religion.

The basis of religious conflicts, often leading to bloodshed, is nothing more than ignorance, misinterpretation or superficial understanding of basic religious teachings and doctrines. People who think in stereotypes and perceive religions alien to them as hostile are not able to exercise free and conscious self-determination in their ideological position, spiritual interests and values, learn to competently conduct ideological dialogue, and master the art of understanding other people whose way of thinking and acting is different. The study of religious teachings helps to avoid, on the one hand, dogmatism and authoritarianism, and on the other, relativism and nihilism, and also helps to establish a spiritual climate of mutual understanding, harmonization of interpersonal relations between representatives of different religious and non-religious worldviews, the establishment of civil harmony and social stability in society.

List of used literature

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